


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. i 



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if'kM) 



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EULES AND CAUTIONS 



IN 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK 



FOVNBED ON THE 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



BY WILLIAM EUSHTON, M.A. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ENGLISH LITERATim73, 
QUEEN'S COLLEGE, CORK. 




LONDON : 

LONG-MANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 

1869. 



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T'^^^^^ 
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LONDON: PRINTED BY 

SPOlXitiWOODE AND CO., NEW-STUEET a^iUABl 

AND PA£L1AMENI SIHEEI 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 
liTTRODUCTION , , . vii 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

OHiP. 

I. Simple Sentences, Indicative . . , , .1 

11. Simple Sentences, other than Indicative ... 28 

III. Compound Sentences . . , . . . .33 

IV. Contracted and Elliptical Sentences .... 59 

RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

V. Nouns . 63 

VI. Adjectives 93 

VII. Pronouns . .' 105 

VIII. Words variously termed Adjective Pronouns, or 

Pronominal Adjectives 140 

IX. Articles .... 149 

X. Verbs 161 

XI. GrENERAL EeMARKS ON PARTICLES 220 

XII. Adverbs .221 

XIII. Conjunctions 240 

XIV. Words variously terihed Conjunctive Adverbs, Ad- 

verbial Conjunctions, etc. etc. .... 248 

XV. Prepositions . , 260 

Examples 280 

Exercises for Analysis, . . , • . . 302 



▲ 2 



WORKS USED* OR OCCASIONALLY CONSULTED f. 



* Adams, Dr. Ernest, * Elements of the English Language.' Bdl ^ 

Baldy, 1862. 

* Angus, Dr. Joseph, • Handbook of the English Tongue.' Eeh(p,ous 

Tract Society, 1862. 

t Arnold, Thomas Keeohever, M.A., ' An English G-rammar for 
Classical Schools.' Bivingtmis, 1 860. 

t Bain, Professor Alexander, • English G-rammar.' Longmans, 1863, 

t Becker, Dr. Karl Ferdinand, * Schulgrammatik der deutschen 
Sprache.' Frankfort, 1862. 

t * Grammar of the German Language, 

adapted to the use of English Students,' by Dr. J. W. Eeaeders- 
DORF. WUliams ^ Norgate, 1855. 

t Campbell, Dr. George, * Philosophy of Rhetoric' Wm. Tegg ^ Co., 
1850. 

t Cobbett, William, * G-rammar of the English Language.' London 
1833. 

t Dalgleish, William Scott, M.A., * Grammatical Analysis.' Sim^Jcin, 
Marshall ^ Co., 1866. 

t Fowler, William C, * The English Language.' Cassell, Fetter and 
Galpin, 1860. 

t G-arnett, Eev. Kichard, • Philological Essays.' Williams Sf Norgate, 
1859. 

t Head, Sir Edmund W., Bart., ' Shall' and * Will.' Murray, 1858. 

t Key, Professor Thomas Hewitt, * Latin Grammar.' Bell ^ Baldy, 
1858. 

t Latham, Dr. Egbert Gordon, * The English Language.' 1862. 

t — ' Elementary English Grammar.' 1860. 

t * Logic in its Application to Language.' 

Walton ^ Maherly, 1856. 

* Lowth, Dr. Egbert, * A Short Introduction to English Grammar.' 

London, 1784. 

* Mason, Charles Peter, BA., 'English Grammar, including the 

Principles of Grammatical Analysis.' Walton ^ Maherly, 1858. 



VI WORKS USED, OR OCCASIONALLY CONSULTED. 

^ MoRELL, Dr. J. D., * Grammar of the English Language, together with 
an Exposition of the Analysis of Sentences/ Longmans ^ 1860. 

t MuREAY, LiNDLEY, 'English Grrammar/ York, 1824. 

t EowLAND, Eev. Thomas, * A Grrammar of the Welsh Language.' 
Hughes ^ Butler, 1857. 

t Stoddart, Sir John, ' Universal Grammar,' Encyclopaedia Metropo- 
litana. Griffin ^ Co., 1847. 

t TooKE, John Horne, * Diversions of Purley/ edited by Kichabd 
Taylor. Tcgg, 1829. 

t Wedgwood, Hensleigh, M.A., * Dictionary of English Etymology.* 

Trubner ^- Co., 1859. 



INTRODUCTION. 



"We will suppose that two persons are about to dispute, and 
that they lay down a certain book upon the table. One says, 

* The book is good ; ' the other says, ^ The book is not good ; ' 
and they proceed to argue the question. 

The book is the subject, that which is laid down for discus- 
sion ; and the term is derived from the Latin suhjectum, lite- 
rally meaning, * that which is laid down.' 

Concerning this subject, the quality of goodness is affirmed 
by one disputant, and denied by the other ; and this quality 
of goodness is said to be predicated^ that is * stated' (either 
affirmed or denied) of the subject. 

The word predicate is derived from the Latin prae-dicdre, 

* to show forth, proclaim, declare,' a word not to be con- 
founded by yoimg pupils with prae-dlcere, * to foretell, pro- 
phesy.' Hence the predicate means * that which is stated,' 
' the thing or notion affirmed or denied.' 

Now the book and the quality of goodness are the things 
signified. One disputant says, that the book belongs to the 
class of things called good ; the other says, that the book does 
not so belong. But the word * book,' and the word ' good,' 
are signs or sounds, which, in our language, represent the 
thing or notion in question. 

The written word is a ' sign ; ' the spoken word is a ^ sound ; ' 
but both the sign and the sound are marks or tokens of the 
things signified. 

In Metaphysics, this distinction is most important. For 
our purpose, it will be sufficient merely to indicate the dis- 
tinction, and to observe that the terms subject and predicate 



Vlll INTRODUCTION, 

are, in Grammar, applied to the words themselves as they 
stand in a proposition. 

In this sentence, ' The book is good,' we have a ^ proposi- 
tion,' that is ^ an indicative or declaratory sentence ; ' and it is 
also called an * affirmative proposition,' because it affirms or 
^ says yes.' 

But in the sentence, 'The book is not good,' we have a 
' negative proposition ; ' that is, a declaratory sentence which 
denies, or * says no.' 

In both these sentences, Logicians call ' the book' the sul- 
ject of the proposition, and * good ' the predicate ; and they 
term * is ' the copula, that is the ' link ' or ' tie ' which joins 
the subject and the predicate together. In negative sentences, 
they attach the negation to the copula; thus, in the sentence 
* The book is not good,' they make is not the copula. ^-4^"^^ 

In such propositions as, ' The sim shines,' the Logicians say 
that both predicate and copula are contained in the word 
^shines;' for /shines' is equivalent to * is shining;' and so 
they analyse 

Subject, Copula. PredicatCc 

The Sim is shining. 

Of those writers who have applied logical analysis to the 
grammar of a modem language, one of the most distinguished 
is Dr. Karl Ferdinand Becker, whose Grammar of the German 
Language enjoys a high reputation. In our own country. 
Dr. Latham has written on ' Logic in its application to Lan- 
guage ; ' but his treatise on that subject is not so extensively 
known as his works on the * English Language.' 

The principal followers of Becker, in England, are Dr. 
Morell and Mr. Mason ; to each of whom I have to acknow- 
ledge many obligations, though I am often at variance with 
both, in theory and in detail. Where I am obliged to differ 
from them, I have endeavoured to state my views with mode- 
ration and candour. 

More recently, Professor Bain, of Aberdeen, has published 
an English Grammar founded upon the Analysis of Sentences. 
This work I have consulted with advantage from time to time. 



INTRODUCTION. IX 

Now the application of Logic to Grammar is attended with 
considerable difficulty. If, indeed, the logical subject and 
predicate were always represented, each by a single word, 
the appKcation of logical terms to Grammar would be com- 
paratively easy. But in Logic, the subject and the predicate 
may each be represented by several words ; thus 

Subject. Copula. Predicate. 

The early sun is brightly shining. 

The royal army is utterly defeated. 

Those writers who apply Logic to Grammar have generally 
retained the terms subject and predicate, but with a distinction. 
Thus, in the sentences just given, * sun ' (the old-fashioned 

* nominative to the verb ') is called the grammatical subject ; 
the words ' the early ' are then an enlargement of the gramma- 
tical subject ; and so * the early sun ' is termed the enlarged 
subject. Hence it follows that ^ the early sun,' which is the 
logical subject, is the enlarged grammatical subject. In like 
manner, * army ' is the grammatical subject ; and ' the royal 
army' (the subject in Logic) is the enlarged subject in Grammar. 

First, they restrict the term, and then they enlarge it; 
with the additional disadvantage of employing the same term 
{subject), in one sense in Logic, and in another in Grammar. 

Similarly the grammatical predicate does not always coincide 
with the logical predicate ; for, in some instances, the logical 
predicate is, in a grammatical point of view, the ' extended 
predicate.' Dr. Morell says {Grammar, p. 66), *In gram- 
matical analysis, it is more convenient to regard the copula as 
belonging to the predicate ; so that, instead of having three 
essential elements to every sentence, as is the case in Logic, 
we shall have only two, namely (1) the Subject, which ex- 
presses the thing about which we are speaking ; and (2) the 
Predicate, which contains what we affirm of the subject.' 
According to this view, we have, in the examples given, ^ is 
shining,' and * is defeated,' for the grammatical predicates ; but 
we are farther informed that the adverbs ^ brightly ' and 

* utterly ' are extensions of the predicate ; whence ' is brightly 
shining ' and * is utterly defeated ' are extended predicates. 

A 3 



X INTRODUCTION, 

Here, again, we observe a restriction followed by an ex- 
tension. 

But the difiicnlties presented by the Copula are not so 
easily surmounted. According to the more recent works on 
Logic, the copula is explained as merely indicating the agree- 
ment or disagreement of two terms. But in the system 
hitherto received. Logicians reduce every proposition to the 
form * A is B ' or ^ A is not B ; ' and accordingly the verb of 
the predicate (or the predicate-verb, as we shall term it) is 
resolved into is with a participle ; for example, ' The sun 
shines ' is resolved, * The sun is shining.' 

Further, as they maintain that an adjective or participle is 
not significant by itself, they tell us that some substantive 
must be supplied to complete the sense. Thus, * Thomas is 
wise ' is explained to be ' Thomas is a wise man.' So, ^ The 
sun is shining ' is ^ The sun is a shining body,' or * a shining 
substance.' Hence the sentence ^ John walks ' is resolved into 
* John is walking,' and this is explained ' John is a walking 
man.' 

They are not, however, all agreed as to the exact form of 
the copula. Some of them say, that any finite part of the 
verb he may be so used ; others restrict the copula to the 
present tense indicative of that verb. According to the view 
taken by the latter, this sentence, * The way of the wicked 
shall be darkness,' must be resolved, 
The way of the wicked 

is a way which shall be darkness, 
or is a way tending to darkness. 

(See Hiirs Aldrich, p. 18.) 

All this seems very artificial. But further, it gives rise to 
numerous ambiguities ; and we shall see that the word is^ in- 
nocent as it looks, is one of the most deceptive little words in 
the language. 

First of all, the word Z5, apart from its use as a copula, 
may be employed by itself as a predicate-verb, denoting ex- 
istence ; for €'xample, * God is,' that is, * God exists.' And so 
here : — 



INTRODUCTION- XI 

My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, 
Shakes so my single state of man, that function 
Is smothered in surmise ; and nothing is, 
But what is not, 

Macbeth^ i. 3. 

TVe find an emphatic use of is in a remarkable passage in 
the Winter's Tale, iv. 3, touching upon the relation of art to 
nature : — 

This is an art 
Which does mend nature, change it rather ; but 
The art itself is natui'e. 

Shakespeare oHen dwells upon the distinction between 
' being ' and ^ seeming ; ' as in the dialogue between the Queen 
and Hamlet : — 

Queen. Good Hamlet, cast thy nighted colour off, 
And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. 
Do not, for ever, with thy vailed lids 
Seek for thy noble father in the dust : 
Thou know'st, 'tis common ; all that live mu^^t die, 
Passing through nature to eternity. 

Hamlet. Ay, madam, it is common. 

Queen. If it be, 

Wliy seems it so particular with thee ? 

Hamlet, Seems, madam I nay it is : I know not 
' seems.' 
'Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother, 
Nor customary suits of solemn black, 
Nor windy suspiration of forced breath. 
No, nor the iruitfol river in the eye. 
Nor the dejected haviour of the visage, 
Togjether with all forms, modes, shows of grief, 
That can denote me truly ; these, indeed, seem, 
For they are actions that a man might play : 
But I have that within which passeth show ; 
These but the trappings, and the suits of woe. 

Hamlet, i. 2. 
Compare the assertion of lago : 

For, sir. 
It is as sure as you are Roderigo, 
Were I the Moor, I would not be lago : 
In following him, I follow but myself; 



XU INTRODUCTION, 

Heaven is my judge, not I for love and duty 

But seeming so, for my peculiar end : 

For when my outward action doth demonstrate 

The native act and figure of my heart 

In compliment extern, 'tis not long after 

But I will wear my heart upon my sleeve 

For daws to peck at : 1 am not what I am. 

Othello, i. 1. 
Now contrast the following passage : 

Sir Tohy, Jove bless thee, master Parson. 

Clown (personating Sir Topas the Curate). Bonos dies, Sir 
Toby : for, as the old hermit of Prague, that never saw pen 
and ink, very wittily said to a niece of King Gorboduc, ^ That 
that is is'; so, I being master Parson, am master Parson; 
for what is ' that ' but that, and * is ' but is ? 

This is the very point. No doubt, * whatever is, is,' in the 
sense that ' whatever exists, exists.' But let us consider the 
various significations which may be implied in the word is, 
used as a copula, in the simple sentence ^ A is B.' 

* A is B ' may mean, 

1. A is co-extensive with B : Man is a rational animal. 

2. A is of the same meaning 

with B : Fidelity is faithfulness. 

3. A is in the condition im- 
plied by B : The sailor is saved. 

4. A is included in the class 

of B : Man is an animal. 

5. A is possessed of attri- 
butes common to the class 

of B : Man is an animal. 

6. A is possessed of attri- 
butes implied in the term 

B : God is a Spirit. 

7. A is the cause of B : Intemperance is the death 

of thousands. 

8. A is like B : The hero is a lion in the 

fight. 

9. A is analogous to B : Athens is the eye of Greece. 



INTRODUCTION. XUl 

In fact, it is difficult to fix a limit to the various meanings 
which may be assigned to the word is in the simple sentence 
' A is B; 

In Mathematics we find nothing of this laxity in the state- 
ment of propositions. There everything is judged by measure, 
number, or proportion. Things are said to be equal, or not 
equal, to one another ; in exact ratio, or not in exact ratio : 
so that there is no room for any play of meaning. 

But in ordinary conversation, or argument, the latitude is 
so great, that it is no wonder if misunderstandings arise. The 
only wonder is, that disputants can ever come to issue at all. 

For example, we hear it said that * Knowledge is power.' 
But what does this mean ? It may signify that knowledge is 
identical mth power, or as good as power, or a kind of power, 
or a source of power, or the way to power, &c. &c. Practi- 
cally, it is generally imderstood to imply that knowledge gives 
or confers power ; so that a man who possesses knowledge has 
more power than another who does not possess such know- 
ledge. But the proposition says ' Knowledge is power ;' and 
this rhetorical phrase conveys to the mind an indefinite notion 
of grandeur. 

Again, Napoleon proclaims that * The empire is peace.' No 
one supposes this to mean ^ peace at any price,' or that France 
will not go to war under any circumstances. It may mean 
that Napoleon will not make war for the wanton love of it, or 
imless he is obliged. But while this proposition has no defi- 
nite meaning, it carries an imposing sound, and has actually 
produced the effect of tranquillising the apprehensions of neigh- 
bouring states. This, no doubt, was the object intended. 

Hence, when a man says that anything is anything, or that 
anything is something else, we cannot tell whether he is right 
or wrong until we know what he means by is. 

And we may well doubt whether this word is not one of 
the most unsuitable that could be chosen as the Copula or Tie 
to join other words together. Still more strange does it seem 
that every other verb must be resolved into a participle 
coupled with this ambiguous word is. 



XIV INTRODUCTION. 

On tliese discrepancies in the Logical system, Mr. Mason 
i'emarks {Grammar^ § 347, note) : — *In Logic, the terms pre- 
dicate and copula involve a little difficulty. In the proposition 
" The earth is a globe," it would be said that the predicate 
{prcedicatum or thing asserted) is a globe ; that is, what we 
assert of the earth is, a globe. This mode of speaking requires 
a technical meaning to be put upon it, before it has any sense. 
More strictly in accordance with the meaning of the language, 
it should be said that what we assert, or the thing asserted 
about the earth, is its being a globe. Again, the so-called 
copula in Logic is really more than a copula or link by which 
two ideas are connected. If we have a finite form of the verb 
he (and without a finite form there can be no predication), we 
may ignore, but we cannot eliminate, either the root-meaning 
of the verb, or the idea of time. Is and are involve the notion 
of present time as essentially as was and were that of past 
time. This little difficulty however is quietly swallowed by 
the logicians, who tell us that the copula, as such, has no re- 
lation to time. The fact is, that technical logic ought to have 
some abstract sign for the copula, something like = in mathe- 
matics, and not the verb be at all. Now if we put together the 
two facts that there may be a perfect proposition without the 
verb be, and that when that verb is used there is no proposi- 
tion unless the verb be is in a finite form, the inference is 
plain that the real copula consists of those inflections by which 
a verb assumes a finite form.* 

Hence Mr. Mason considers that ' the grammatical copula 
in every sentence consists of the personal inflections of the 
verb ; that is, the inflections by which number and person are 
marked, and by which the verb is made 2i finite verb. In the 
sentence " Time flies," the subject is Time ; that which is pre- 
dicated or asserted of time i^ flying-, the personal termination 
of the Yevh flies unites this idea to the subject.' 

The same doctrine is laid down by Mill, Logic, I. iv. He 
says: — * A predicate and a subject are all that is necessarily 
required to make up a proposition ; but as we cannot conclude, 
from merely seeing two names put together, that they are a 



INTROBTJCTION. XV 

predicate and a subject, tliat is, that one of them is intended 
to be affirmed or denied of the other, it is necessary that there 
should be some mode or form of indicating that such is the 
intention ; some sign to distinguish a predication from any 
other sign of discoui-se. This is sometimes done by a slight 
alteration of one of the words, called an infiection ; as when 
we say " Fire burns," the change of the second word from 
hum to hums showing that we mean to affirm the predicate 
" burn " of the subject '' fire." ' 

But let us inquire whether any linh or tie is absolutely 
necessary to unite words in a sentence ; whether the mere 
juxtaposition is not enough ; and whether there may not be 
predication without a finite verb. 

In Latin we frequently find such forms as these : — Numen 
lumen ; Victrix fortunce virtus ; Salus populi lex suprema ; 
Vox populi vox Deij and many similar sentences. 

Grammarians assert that the copula is omitted here, and 
that estj ' is,' must be ^ understood,' as they phrase it. But that 
is the very point at issue. What they mean is that they think 
it ought to be there, and they tell us to supply it. We con- 
tend that it is not there ; and that, if the Latin does not want 
it, neither do we. 

Li Hebrew, the union of Subject and Predicate is most com- 
monly expressed by simply writing them together, without 
any copula ; as * Jehovah mighty,' for ' Jehovah is mighty ; ' 
so, * The gold of that land good' {Genesis ii. 12), for 'The 
gold of that land is good.' In Zechariah xiii. 9, our version 
reads : — ' I will say. It is my people ; and they shall say. The 
Lord is my God ; ' but the original has it, * I will say, My 
people he ; and he shall say, Jehovah my God.' 

Less frequently the copula is expressed by the verb hayah^ 
*be.' See Gesenius, Hehrew Grammar^ § 141. 

In Chinese there are no parts of speech in the sense recog- 
nised by us ; but difierence of meaning depends upon the 
order of words. Thus, ta fu means *a great man;' hut fu ta 
signifies * the man is great.' See Max Miiller, Science of Lan- 
guage^ Second Series, p. 85. 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

There is room to doubt whether any copula, link, or tie is 
absolutely necessary in a sentence. We are accustomed to 
expect it in English and other languages ; and we are ready 
to infer that where it is not found, we must supply some con- 
necting link. Here we may perhaps do weU to revise our 
judgment. 

We should also beware of rashness in applying logical terms 
to Grammar. We have reason to fear that nothing but con- 
fusion must result from an attempt to strain the logical terms 
beyond the purposes for which they were originally designed. 
It is always more or less dangerous to transfer the nomencla- 
ture of one science to another ; and if we can do so at all, we 
should endeavour to alter the signification of the terms as little 
as possible. This, however, we may do : if we wish to adapt 
the logical method, or any part of it, to grammatical pur- 
poses, we may modify the terms to suit the requirements of 
Grammar. 

A valuable suggestion is offered by Professor Key in his 
Latin Grammar^ § 847. He says : — * Some grammarians are 
in the habit of treating those sentences which have the verb 
he as the forms to which all others are to be reduced. Hence 
they divide a sentence into three parts : — 
The Subject, that of which you speak ; 
The Predicate, that which you say of the subject ; and 
The Copula, or verb 5e, which unites the subject and 
predicate. 

* Thus, for instance, in the sentence or proposition " Man is 
an animal," man is the subject, animal the predicate, is the 
copula. 

* The subject according to this system is the nominative 
case. When, instead of the verb he, another verb is used, 
they resolve it into some part of the verb he and a participle. 
Thus, Cicero writes a letter, is resolved into Cicero is writing 
a letter ; where Cicero is the subject, writing a letter the pre- 
dicate, is the copula. 

' The substantive, adjective, or participle that accompanies 
the verb he as a predicate, is in Latin made to agree in case 



INTRODUCTION. XVll 

with the subject nominative, and is called the nominative of 
the predicate.' 

So far we have two distinct terms : the suhject-nominative, 
corresponding to * the nominative ' of the old grammars ; and 
\he predicate-nominative^ of which the old grammars took no- 
special notice. Hence, in * The sun is shining/ sun is the 
* subject-nominative/ and shining is the * predicate-nomina- 
tive ; ' while in the sentence, * The early sun is brightly shin- 
ing,' sun is still the ' subject-nominative,' and shining is stiU 
the ' predicate-nominative ; ' while the words, * the early,' and 
'brightly,' are qualifications of the subject-nominative and the 
predicative-nominative respectively. 

By this method, we have the great advantage of obtaining 
distinct terms for the grammatical subject, and for certain 
forms of the grammatical predicate. But the difficulty of the 
copula is untouched. In aU verbs, except the verb be^ the 
copula and predicate are blended together ; and the artifice of 
resolving a verb into some part of the verb he and a participle 
is open to many objections. Besides, as IVIr. Mason observes 
{English Grammar ^ Preface^ p. x.), * If in the sentence, " He 
is rich," rich is the predicate and is the copula, why, in the 
sentence, " He becomes rich," should we not call becomes the 
copula ? The notion of becoming has quite as good a right to 
be considered copulative as the notion of being.^ 

This is the most knotty point of the whole question ; and 
various solutions have been proposed. Dr. Morell, as we have 
seen, thinks it more convenient to regard the copula as belon- 
ing to the predicate. Mr, Kerchever Arnold proposes to make 
different kinds of copulas; for example, he calls * become,* 
seem,' &c. strengthened copulas, Mr. Mason says, ' the difli- 
culty is removed, and the anomaly obviated, when we regard 
neither. 5e nor become as a copula, but treat them as verbs of 
incomplete predication,^ 

The truth is, that the Logical and the Grammatical systems 
have been drawn up at various times, and with different views ; 
BO that when we bring them together we find a discrepancy. 

The Logical arrangement is threefold : 



XVlll INTKODIJCTION. 

Subject. Copula, Predicate. 

Man is • mortal. 

The Grammatical arrangement is twofold : 
Nominative. Verb. 

Time fiies. 

. In Grammar, we must take the grammatical arrangement ag 
the basis, but with a modification of the terms : we call the 
nominative of the subject the subject-nominative, and the verb 
of the predicate the predicate-verb. We discard the copula, 
and make no distinction whatever between the verb be, and 
any other intransitive verb. We analyse these sentences in 
the following manner, taking the second as the model : — 
I. Time Subject-nominative 

flies. Predicate-verb. 

IL Man Subject-nominative 

is Predicate-verb 

mortal. Predicate-nominative. 

By the term Predicate-verb we understand the ^ verb of the 
predicate,' or ' the verb in the predicate.' According to this 
method we are able to point out the chief word in the logical 
subject, namely the subject-nominative ; and the chief word or 
words in the logical predicate, whether it be a predicate-verb, 
or a predicate-nominative accompanying a predicate-verb. 

It follows that we make no distinction between such sen- 
tences as these : — 

1. Thomas is wise. 

2. Thomas seems wise. 

Su bject-nominative 

Predicate-verb 

Predicate-nominative. 

Subject-nominative 

Predicate-verb 

Predicate-nominative. 



We 
I. 


analyse : 
Thomas 




is 




>yise. 


II. 


Thomas 




seems 




wise. 



INTRODUCTION. XIX 

It may be objected, that after all this circumlocution, we 
have come back very nearly to the old-fashioned doctrine of 

* the nominative and the verb.' So we have ; but with this 
difference, that we have explained what is meant by ''the 
nominative,' and * the verb.' 

Under the old system, it is common to say that a verb 
must agree with its nominative case ; whereas, more strictly, 
the verb agrees with a * substantive in the nominative case ; ' 
and further, the nominative is often used as synonymous with 
the subject of the sentence. 

But although, no doubt, there is inaccuracy under the old 
system, there may be some danger of confusion under the new 
systems which are propounded. If, on the one hand, the term 
' nominative ' is loosely employed to denote the ' subject,' it is 
no less true, on the other hand, that many pupils of the new 
school bandy about the terms * subject ' and ' predicate ' with- 
out any definite notion of the meaning implied in those terms. 
Sometimes, in examination, when a boy has written down 

* enlargement of the subject,' or * extension of the predicate,' 
he fancies that he has said a good thing, no matter whether 
the phrase be appropriate or not. We must try to avoid error 
on both sides. Where the old school talked of ^ the nomina- 
tive,' we speak of the ' 5w5;'6ci-nominative ; ' and where the 
new school employs an ambiguous term ' subject,' we use the 
more precise * subject-womma^^ve.' 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Chapter I. 
SIMPLE SENTENCES, INDICATI\rE. 

1. A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a com- 
plete thought : as ' The bird sings ; ' ^ Summer is charming.' 

A collection of words, not expressing a complete thought, 
is sometimes termed a Phrase : as ' The poems of Homer ; ' 
* Quietly waiting ; ' ' Now and then/ 

Sentences have been divided into Simple and Compound. 
Simple sentences, again, have been subdivided into Indicative, 
Interrogative, Imperative, and Optative. We shall, in the 
first instance, confine our attention to Simple Indicative 
(i.e. declaratory) Sentences, which may be either Affirmative 
or Negative : as, 

Mirth is good (affirmative). 

Folly is not good .... (negative). 

SIMPLE INDICATIVE SENTENCES. 

2. A Simple Sentence contains one subject-nominative, 
and one predicate -verb : as ^ Time flies.' Or it may contain 
one subject-nominative, one predicate-verb, and one predicate- 
nominative : as ' Mirth is good.' 

We shall, first of all, consider the subject-nominative and the 
predicate-nominative, and then proceed to the use of verbs. A 
remark, however, is necessary in reference to terms which will 
repeatedly occur, namely, qualification and substantive. 

By a qualification we understand any word or phrase which 
explains, modifies, or limits any other word or phrase. Thus, 
as an adjective qualifies a noun, so an adverb qualifies a verb. 

A substantive is a word which, by itself and single-handed, 

B 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



can form either a subject or a predicate.* The term com- 
prehends nouns, certain of the pronouns, and the infinitive 
mood of a verb used substantively.! In employing the word 
7ionn we shall always understand a noun- substantive. 



THE SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 

3. The subject-nominative answers to the question ivho ? 
or what ? and must be a substantive, as, 

1. A noun ...... Alfred is king. 

2. A pronoun ^e speaks well. 

3. An adjective used substantively ; more commonly in 

the plural, but sometimes in the singular ; as, 

' The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the 

righteous is as bold as a lion.' 

Ohs. — The adjective used substantively is most commonly 

found in connection with the definite article. I do not 

hold, however, that the adjective and the article are 

together equal to a substantive ; but that the adjective 

being used substantively is capable of receiving the 

article. 

4. The infinitive mood of a verb, used substantively : as. 

To err is himian. 
Seeing is believing. 

Obs. — The infinitive in -ing is termed by some grammarians' 
the gerwnd. The form in -ing will demand special 
consideration. See §§ 31-35. 

With impersonal verbs, as they are termed, the subject is 
indefinite, and the pronoun it takes the place of a subject- 
nominative : as ^ It rains,' ^ It freezes.' 

There is another use of the pronoun it^ which must be 
carefully observed. In English we often place the subject 
last, and the predicate first. In such cases we may use the 
pronoun it as the representative or forerunner of the subject, 
to show that the subject is coming. Thus, instead of saying 
' To ride is pleasant,' we may say ^ It is pleasant to ride; ' but 
in both instances to ride is the logical subject, and pleasant is 
the predicate. See Whately, Logic ^ II. 1, 3. 

The adverb there is used in a manner somewhat similar : 
as, ' There came a philosopher from India.' 

* Latham, Logic in its Application to Language, p. 254. 
t Mason, English Grammar ^ §352 and § 131. 



SUBJECT-NOMINATIYE. o 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 

' 4. The subject-nominative may be qualified by an attri- 
hute^ that is, by an adjective, or by any word or phrase having 
the force of an adjective : as, 

1. By an adjective : 

A merry heart goes all the day. 

2. By a demonstrative pronoun : 

These things are true. 

3. By the definite article : 

The die is cast. 
Ohs, — Some grammarians consider the article so closely con- 
nected with the noun as to form one notion. But, 
strictly speaking, the definite article is a qualification ; 
indeed, in G-reek and German, as well as in English, 
the definite article is a modified form of the demon- 
strative pronoun. 

4. By a noun standing in apposition with the subject- 

nominative : as, 

Cicero, the orator^ made a speech ; 
where the additional words, ^ the orator,' inform us 
that it was Marcus Cicero, and not brother Quintus, 
or any other Cicero. 

5. A substantive in the possessive case has the force of 

an adjective : thus the royal army means the ^ King's 
army,' or the ^ Queen's army.' Hence a noun or 
pronoun in the possessive case may be used to 
qualify the subject-nominative : as, 

Biidcingham's end was unfortunate. 

His work was done. 

6. The English possessive may be otherwise expressed 
by means of the preposi ion of\ ' the King''s^aTmy ' 
is ^ the army of the King ; ' and both forms are equi- 
valent to a genitive case in Latin. Hence the pre- 
positional phrase of the King may be employed to 
qualiiy a subject-nominative : as. 

The army of the King was defeated. 
A man of virtue is respected. 
The point of honour is debated. 

Other prepositions are used in the same way : as, 

The desire for fame is natural. 
b2 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE^; 

Passive participles are equivalent to adjectives, and 
may qualify a subject-nominative: as, 

Born to command, lie ruled with firmness. 

Adorned with amiable qualities, she was an 
agreeable woman. 
But the case of active participles is not so clear. In 
the sentence ^ William, having conquered Harold^ 
ascended the throne,' Dr. Morell considers the 
phrase * having conquered Harold ' as an ' enlarge- 
ment of the subject,' or, as we term it, a ' qualifica- 
tion of the subject-nominative.' It would seem, 
however, that the phrase in question qualifies the 
predicate rather than the subject : for the meaning 
is that * William ascended the throne when he had 
conquered Harold,' or, * after having conquered 
Harold.' In fact, we might turn the participle into 
a verb, coupled with the conjunction and^ thus 
throwing the phrase into the predicate : ' William 
conquered Harold, and ascended the throne.' On 
the other hand, if we expressed the sentence thus, 
* William, the conqueror of Harold, ascended the 
throne,' the phrase * the conqueror of Harold ' would 
be a manifest qualification of the subject-nominative. 



THE PKEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 

5. The predicate-nominative answers the question, Of what 
Jcind ? Of what nature ? or, Of what class ? 
It may be : 

1. An adjective : . . . . Heaven is high, 

2. A noun : Arthur is Tcing, 

3. A pro7ioun : I am he. 

4. The infinitive mood of a 

verb used substantively: To hear is to oley. 

Seeing is believing, 

Obs. — This form in -in^ is called by some grammarians the 
gernind. 

An apparent difficulty occurs where an adverb, or a pre- 
positional phrase, occupies the place of the predicate : as, 

Thomas is here. 

He is of sound mind. 
Three explanations of this construction might be offered : 



PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 5 

1. Tliat these sentences are elliptical ; in other words, that 
the predicate-nominative is omitted. For, it is argued, we 
might supply its place in the following way : 

Thomas is (present) here. 
He is (a man) of sound mind. 

In some instances we are obliged to supply a word. For ex- 
ample, we cannot say * He is of great ability,' but ^ He is a 
mmi of great ability.' So also, ^ It is a matter of difficulty : ' 
' That was an affair of honour ; ' w^here the words man^ matter^ 
and affair are the predicate-nominatives of the sentences ; 
while the prepositional phrases, ' of great ability,' ^ of difficulty,' 

* of honour,' are used to qualify the predicate-nominatives. 
We learn what sort of a man he is, what kind of an affair it 
was, and so forth. According to this view, in the sentence 

* Thomas is here,' the predicate-nominative is understood, and 
the adverb here qualifies the predicate -nominative understood. 
But this artifice of ' imderstanding ' and ^ supplying ' is always 
open to suspicion. , 

2. That the verb Z5, here employed to assert ' existence ' or 
' presence,' stands as a predicate- verb ; and that the adverb 
here^ or the adverbial phrase of sound mind, is a qualification 
of the predicate-verb ^ is.' 

3. That the adverb or adverbial phrase is used as a predi- 
cate-nominative, or in the place of a predicate-nominative. 
Professor Key is guarded in deaKng with this construction. 
He says {Latin Grammar^ § 876, 1), ' although a noun substan- 
tive or adjective with es — he, usually constitutes the predicate, 
the place may he supplied by a descriptive word or phrase of a 
different form : as (a) a genitive or ablative of quality ; (&) 
dative of the light in which a thing is regarded ; (c) a prepo- 
sitional phrase ; or (d) an adverb.' And again, § 1401 : 

* Adverbs are used in some phrases with the verb es — he, 
when an adjective or participle might have been expected.^ 

6. The truth is, that in practical composition, the distinc- 
tion between the parts of speech is not so absolute as etymo- 
logy would lead us to suppose. The function, or power in a 
sentence, seems to determine the character of the word ; and 
on this principle, perhaps, we may venture to call the adverb 
a predicate. If so, of course we may extend the same principle 
to the adverbial phrase. 

In Fraedersdorf s translation of Becker {German Grammar, 



6 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

§ 195), we read : * The predicate is expressed, in German as 
in English, by 

a. A verb. 

h. An adjective (not inflected). 

c. A substantive in the nominative case. 

d. A substantive in the genitive case. 

e. A substantive with a preposition. 
/. An adverb.' 

Here Becker says distinctly that the predicate may be ex- 
pressed by an adverb. 



QUALIFICATIONS OP THE PEEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 

7. Of course, these qualifications will depend upon the na- 
ture of the predicate-nominative itself. Hence, 

I. An adjective used as a predicate-nominative may be 
qualified, 

1. By an adverb : as, 

Heaven is very high. 
Charles is exceedingly foolish. 

2. By an adverbial phrase : as, 

Harry is praiseworthy in some respects, 
II. A noun used as a predicate-nominative may be qualified, 

1. By an adjective : as, 

Arthur is a good king : 
and this, in turn, may be further qualified by an 
adverb, as, 

Arthur is a very good king. 

2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case : as, 

Bolingbroke was the poefs friend. 
That was his fault. 

8. By a prepositional phrase : as, 

Buckingham was the servant of the king. 
He is a man of ability. 

4. By a noun used in apposition : as, 

The greatest Eoman orator was Cicero, the 
consul. 

In this sentence, analysed grammatically, the subject-nomi- 
native is ' orator ; ' the adjectives * greatest * and * Eoman ' are 



PREDICATE-YERB. 7 

qualifications of the subject-nominative ; the predicate-nomi- 
native is * Cicero ; ' and the consul (used in apposition with 
' Cicero,' and therefore in the nominative case) is a qualifica- 
tion of the predicate-nominative. 

in. An infinitive mood in -ing^ otherwise termed the 
gerund, used substantively as a predicate-nomina- 
tive, may be qualified by an adjective : as, 

That was good hearing : 
And this may be further qualified by an adverb, 

That was very good hearing. 



THE PKEDICATE-YERB. 

8. The older grammarians divided verbs into active, passive, 
and neuter ; but this arrangement sometimes led to perplexity. 
It was easy to understand that ' to kill ' was an active verb, 
and that * to sleep ' was neuter. But the verb ^ to run,' which 
implies lively action, in the sense of bodily motion, was termed 
a neuter verb, because the action does not pass over to any 
other person or thing, but remains with the agent. 

To meet this objection, later grammarians proposed a new 
classification. They termed Transitives (from the Latin trans- 
irej * to go over') all those verbs in which the action could be 
supposed to ^ pass over' to any object; while those to which 
such a supposition could not apply were called Intransitives. 
In this view, to kill was considered Active and Transitive ; 
whereas to imn was Active but Intransitive. 

But we should bev^are of confounding the meaning of the 
verb as a word, with its grammatical power in a sentence. 
We should keep to one principle ; and if any verbs possess a 
certain grammatical power in a sentence, while others do not, 
this alone seems to be a fair basis of classification. Now 
some verbs can govern an objective case, while others cannot ; 
practically the former correspond to Transitives, and the latter 
to Intransitives ; nor is there any necessity to alter these terms ; 
but we must modify their signification, and we propose a defi- 
nition which refers exclusively to the power of verbs in a 
sentence. 

Transitives : — Those verbs which can govern an objective 
case ; as, love^ hhte^ Icill^ flatter^ &c. 

Intransitives : — Those verbs which can not govern an ob- 
jective case ; as, i^n^ walk^ sit, sleep, &c. 



8 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The term ' neuter/ as applied to verbs, should be altogether 
discarded ; and the terms ^ active ' and ^ passive ' should be 
strictly confined to the forms, or, as they are commonly called, 
the voices. 

Hence we would not speak of 'active verbs' or 'passive 
verbs,' but we say that Transitives are used in two voices, 
the Active and the Passive ; whereas Intransitives are used 
in one form alone, which (in point of forin) corresponds with 
the Active voice of verbs Transitive, 

9- As a general rule, though one liable to many exceptions, 
Intransitives are capable of furnishing a complete sense (or of 
making a complete predication) ; while Transitives almost 
always require some word or words to complete the pre- 
dicate. 

For example, in these sentences. He sleeps^ She sits, They 
rim, the verbs are Intransitive, and the meaning in each sen- 
tence is complete. But when we say John beats, the question 
naturally arises ' Whom does he beat ? ' and if we answer ^ John 
heats Thomas,^ the inquiry is satisfied. It is not that ' John 
heats ' tells us less than ' John sleeps ; ' but it raises a new 
question, and imtil this is answered there is a sense of incom- 
pleteness. 

There are, indeed, exceptions both ways. Some Intransi- 
tives, as become, seem, and many others, are not by themselves 
capable of forming a complete predication ; and on the other 
hand, a Transitive verb is sometimes used absolutely, as the 
phrase is : for example, William conquers, that is, William is 
victorious ; but in such sentences the meaning is, ' William con- 
quers all his enemies,' or ' every obstacle,' or words to the 
same effect. 

INTEANSITIVES. 

30- As a general rule Intransitive verbs are capable of 
giviDg a complete sense, or, in other words, of making a com- 
plete predication : as He comes. She goes, Time flies. Here 
the subject-nominative and the predicate-verb are quite suffi- 
cient to constitute a perfect sentence ; and we analyse, 
subject-nominative predicate-verb 

Time flies. 

It will be remembered that by the term predicate-verb we 
mean the leading verb of the predicate. The Intransitive 
(used as a predicate-verb) may be qualified in various ways 



INTRANSITITES. 9 

by adverbs and adverbial phrases ; as, ^ Time flies swifili/,' 
' Time flies with great rapidity^ ' but it will be better to post- 
pone these considerations until we come to discuss, generally, 
the qualifications of predicate-verbs. 

But some intransitives do not form a complete predication. 
To say ' Thomas becomes,' or ^ Harry seems,' would have no 
meaning ; but ' Thomas becomes rich,^ ' Harry seems wise,' 
are intelligible sentences. 

Here the adjectives rich and wise complete the predication : 
they tell us what it is that Thomas and Harry ^ become ' and 
' seem,' and they agree in case with the subject-nominatives. 
They are, in fact, predicate-nominatives. As for example : 
* Thomas becomes rich.' 

Thomas Suhject-nominative, 

becomes Predicate-verh, 

rich Predicate-nominative, 

11. As before remarked, we treat all parts of the verb he as 
parts of an ordinary Intransitive verb ; and therefore we 
analyse ^ Harry was first,' * Edward will he successful,' thus : 

Harry Suhject-nominative, 

was Predicate-verh, 

first Predicate-nominative, 

Edward Suhject-nominative, 

will be Predicate-verh, 

successful Predicate-nominative. 

The use of the predicate-nominative accompanying a pre- 
dicate-verb is not confined to verbs of incomplete predication. 
We may say ' The grass grows,' and this gives a complete 
sense ; but we may also say * Thomas grows tall,' where we 
have, 

Thomas Suhject-nominative, 

grows Predicate-verh, 

tall Predicate-nominative, 

But very great care is necessary to determine this use of 
the adjective, from the fact that many of our old Saxon adjec- 
tives appear to be used adverbially. For example, in these 
sentences, 

The rose smells sweet, 

The wine tastes sour, 

the adjectives * sweet ' and ' sour ' are not predicate-nomina- 
tives, or nominatives at all, but what are called, in Latin 
grammar neuter accusatives. See § 23. 

e3 



10 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

TEANSITIVES. 

12. The Predicate-verb Transitive does not, as a general 
rule, furnisli a complete meaning, inasmuch as it raises a new 
question, demanding an answer ; and the word or words 
"vvhich, after a Transitive verb, help to complete the predicate, 
are usually termed the object. 

But as we distinguished between the logical ' subject ' and 
the grammatical * subject-nominative,' so we must make a 
difference between the object and the objective, by which we 
mean ' a substantive in the objective case.' 

For example, in the sentence * Thomas reads books,' the 
-word books completing the predicate is the ^ object ' of the 
verb reads, and is also the ' objective' governed by the verb. - 
But when we say * Thomas reads many good books,' the 
object is the phrase ' many good books ; ' but the objective is 
'books;' while 'many' and 'good' are qualifications of the 
objective, 

Ohs. — The term * objective' is equivalent to 'object-accusa- 
tive,' ' object-dative/ or ' object-genitive.' We shall 
hereafter distinguish between the ' object-accusative ' 
and the ' subject-accusative,' commonly called the * ac- 
cusative before the infinitive.' 

13. Whenever we have occasion to discriminate between 
the objective immediately dependent upon a Transitive verb, 
and other objectives in a sentence, we shall call the former 
the Primary Objective. 

The Primary Objective, 

We have said that the objective must be a substantive : 
and it may be, 

1. A noun : Scipio loved honour, 

2. A pronoun: The people saw him, 

3. An adjective used substantively : 

The Lord loveth the righteous, 

Ohs, — As far as the mere form is concerned, * the righteous' 
may be either singular or plural. 

4. A verb in the infinitive mood, used substantively : 

He desires to study. 
He practises writing. 

Qualifications of the Objective, 

14. These are very much the same as the qualifications of 
Uie subject-nominative. We may have, 



TRANSITIVES. 11 

1. An adjective: as, 

The baker makes good bread. 

2. A demonstrative pronoun : 

We know these things. 

3. The definite article : 

Wellington pursued the enemy. 

4. A noun in apposition with the objective : 

They applauded Cicero the consid. 

5. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; 

Falkland beheld the hinges army. 
Cromwell knew his weakness. 

6. A prepositional phrase \ ^■ 

Cromwell defeated the army of the king. 

The Complement- Objective. 

15. It is clear that there is a difference between the sen- 
tences * They applauded Cicero the consul ' and ^ They made 
Cicero consul : ' for in the first instance, the term ^ consul ' is 
merely added by way of explanation, to qualify the objective 
* Cicero; ' but in the latter case it is essential to the meaning ; 
it tells us what they made him. Here, as the objective 
stands in close connection with the predicate-verb and helps 
to complete the predication, we shall term it the complement- 
ohjective. We analyse the sentence thus : 

They Subject-nominative. 

made Predicate- verb. 

Cicero Objective {primary). 

consul . . . . . . Complement-objective, 

This ^complement-objective' is sometimes termed the ^facti- 
tive accusative,' from the Latin verb facere, ' to make,' which 
is taken as a type of the whole class of verbs admitting this 
construction. But we must guard against supposing that the 
construction is in any way peculiar to verbs of ^ making ; ' on 
the contrary, a general principle is involved. 

The complement- objective may be, 

1. A noun : as 

The citizens made Whittington mayor, 

2. An adjective : as 

Alfred made his people happy. 



12 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Analysing these sentences, we have 

1. The . . . Article^ qualifying the subject- nominative. 
citizens , . Subject-nominative, 

made . , Predicate-verb, 
Whittington Objective (primary). 
mayor . . Complement-objective, 

2. Alfred . , Subject-nominative, 
made , . Predicate-verb, 

his . . . PronouUj in the possessive case, qualifying 

the primary objective, 
people . . Objective (primary). 
happy . . Complement-objective, 

And observe, that when these verbs are employed in the 
passive voice, just as the primary objective is turned into the 
subject-nominative, so the complement-objective is turned 
into a * complement-nominative : ' thus, 

'• Whittington was made mayor by the citizens ; ' and the 
analysis will be 

Whittington Subject-nominative, 
was . . . Predicate-verb. 
made . . . Predicate-nominative, 
mayor . . Complement-nominative. 
by the citizens Adverbial (or prepositional) phrase, quali' 
fying the predicate-nominative, 

16. As we have said, this construction is by no means con- 
fined to verbs of ' making.' It is found : 

1. With verbs of ^choosing, electing, appointing,' as, 

The Romans elected Cicero consul. 
The people chose Arteveldt burgomaster, 

2. With verbs of ^ calling ' and ^ naming : ' as, 

They called him John. 

The English named Edward Longshanhs. 

Some difficulty arises with ^ to think, deem, consider, regard, 
&c.,' in such sentences as : 

They think him happy. 

He deemed \h.em. foolish. 

They considered him a philosopher. 

It might be argued : if, in these sentences, 
They make him happy, 
They call him happy. 



OBJECTIVES. 13 

* happy' is a complement- objective, the same explanation 
must surely apply to the sentence : 

They tliinh him happy. 

But in ^ make him ' and ^ call him/ him is the immediate ob- 
ject of the verbs. They do ' 'make him ' and ' call him ; ' but 
they do not ^ think him.' In ' make . . . happy ' and ' call 
. . . happy,' the adjective is so bound up with the verb, that 
the idea might be expressed in each case by a single word, 

* beatify ' and * felicitate.' 

On the other hand, when we say ^ They think him happy/ 
we mean 

They think that he is happy, or, 
They think him (to be) happy. 

If this view be correct, the construction must be explained 
upon another principle, which we shall discuss when we con- 
sider the doctrine of the ' subject-accusative.' 

In support of this view we may remark the tendency to 
insert after these verbs a conjunction or some other p<\rticle 
before the second objective : as, 

They regarded him as a philosopher. 
They took him /or a judge. 

The Secondary Objective. 

17. Quite apart from the Complement-objective, many Tran- 
sitive verbs can govern two cases. In Latin, where there is 
great variety of inflection, these are readily distinguished : 
thus, some verbs are said to govern two accusatives ; others an 
accusative and a dative ; . others an accusative and a genitive. 

Grammarians have classified these instances under the head- 
ings of the ^ direct ' and ' indirect ' object ; or, as others prefer 
to say, the ^immediate ' and the ^ remote^' object. But as we 
wish to keep the terms object and objective quite distinct, we 
employ the terms Primary and Secondary Objective. 

Let us take the sentence, ' Socrates taught the Athenians 
philosophy.' In Latin this would be Socrates Athenienses 
philosophiam docuit ; where the Latin grammarians say 
thpit philosophiam is the ^immediate' object, and Athenienses 
the ^remote' object. On the same principle, in 'Socrates 
taught the Athenians philosophy,' we might call philosophy 
the primary objective, and the Athenians the secondary ob- 
jective. 

But we ought to observe that much depends upon the way 



14 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

in which we look at a sentence of this kind. It may be said, 
with truth, that what Socrates taught was * philosophy,' and 
that the persons affected by his teaching were the ^ Athenians ; ' 
in fact, that 

Socrates taught philosophy to the Athenians; and that 
therefore ' philosophy ' is the primary objective. 
But it is equally true that 

Socrates taught (i. e,, instructed) the Athenians in 
philosophy : 

and according to this view, the Athenians t^Q the place of the 
primary objective. 

The former aspect of the case appears to have generally oc- 
curred to the writers upon Greek and Latin grammar ; and 
we shall adhere to it ; but where two interpretations are pos- 
sible, neither should be passed over in total silence. 

18. After verbs of * giving, granting,' &c., the secondary 
objective is generally preceded by the preposition tOj corre- 
sponding to a substantive in the dative case in Latin : as, 

Augustus gave power to Tiberius. 
William granted land to Fitzroy, 

The pronouns me, thee^ him, her, them, represent datives in 
Anglo-Saxon; accordingly they are used as secondary objec- 
tives without the preposition to : 

The master gave me a book. 

The citizens granted him a triumph. 

The prince gave her a crown. 

It is evident that the terms * primary ' and * secondary ' have 
nothjng to do with the position of the objective in a sentence. 
Nor can any general rule be laid down to determine the appli- 
cation of the terms. It frequently happens that the primary 
objective is used in speaking of things, and the secondary ob- 
jective in speaking of persons ; but not always, as may be seen 
from the next example. 

19. After verbs of * accusing, charging,' &c., the secondary 
objective, denoting the ground of accusation (and correspond- 
ing to a substantive in the genitive case in Latin), is preceded 
by the preposition of or with : as, 

Bradshaw accused Cromw el\of ambition. 
Cromwell charged the members with sedition. 

Here the primary objective refers to persons ; and yet by a 
turn of the sentence we may say, 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-YERB. 15 

Bradshaw charged ambition upon Cromwell. 
Cromwell charged sedition upon the members. 

The infinitive mood of a verb used substantively is often 
employed as a primary or secondary objective : thus, 
The general forced him to serve. 
I counsel you to wait. 

And which objective shall be here considered primary or se- 
condary will depend upon the way of looking at the sentence : 
whether, for example, we understand ' The general forced him 
to service^ or, ' The general forced service upon him.'' 

20. When any Transitive verb (which in the active voice 
governs two objectives) is employed in the passive voice, one 
of the objectives is turned into the subject-nominative, and the 
other remains attached to the verb : thus, 

Mr. Thomson taught Henry arithmetic 
may be expressed 

Henry was taught arithmetic by Mr. Thomson, 

or, 

Arithmetic was taught to Henry by Mr. Thomson. 

Where, in construction with the active voice, the secondary 
objective is preceded by the preposition to^ there is a little 
awkwardness in converting that objective into a subject-nomi- 
native : thus, in place of the active construction. 

The Coimcil awarded a prize to Hobinson, 
it is, no doubt, grammatically correct to say, in the passive, 

Rohinson was awarded a prize by the Council ; 

where ^Eobinson' is made the subject-nominative, and 'prize' 
is the primary objective remaining attached to the verb, in the 
passive voice ; but it is more usual to say 

A prize was awarded -^o Rohinson by the Council. 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PEEDICATE-VERB. 

21. The general term adverb is employed to denote a word 
which qualifies a verb ; and appears to signify, literally, ^ that 
which is at or bye the verb,' or, * that which is attached to 
the verb.' 

This term is confined, strictly speaking, to a single word ; 
when two or more words, taken together, are used adverbially. 



16 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

we call the whole an ^ adverbial phrase.' It sometimes hap- 
pens that a preposition and the noun it governs are thus used ; 
and though such a combination is often termed a * preposi- 
tional phrase/ inasmuch as it involves a preposition, yet it 
may, when qualifying a verb, be called an * adverbial phrase,' 
because it has the force of an ^ adverb.' 

As a general rule, then, the predicate-verb may be qualified 
by an adverb : thus, 

Socrates spoke wisely, 

Cicero wrote well. 

On this subject, however, many cautions are necessary. If 
we wish to ^ qualify ' a verb, we employ an adverb ; but if we 
want to * complete the predicate,' we use an adjective as a 
predicate-nominative : thus, 

Henry grows tall. 
They appear wise. 

Hence ^ He stood firm,' and ' He stood firmly,' are both cor- 
rect, but with different significations : the first means * He 
stood, and he was firm as he stood ; ' the second asserts that 
* He stood in a firm manner : ' that * his standing was firm.' 

22. But this is not all. Some adjectives appear to be used 
as adverbs, in such sentences as ^ He hits hard^ ' The horse 
runs/as^;' where the words ^hard' and ^fast' evidently 
qualify the verbs, or tell the character of the ' hitting ' and 
the ' running.' 

For an explanation of this we must refer to the older forms 
of the language. In Anglo-Saxon e is the usual termination 
by which adverbs are formed from adjectives : as 
Adjective. Adverb. 

I'iht ' right ' rihte ' right,' ' rightly.' 

(Lat. recte,) 
wid ^ wide ' wide ' widely.' 

lang * long ' lange * long.' 

Rask, Anglo-Saxon Grammar^ § 335. 

Dr. Adams thinks that this e is the suffix (or case-ending) 
of the dative case, used to express manner : and this termi- 
nation, he says, is retained in Old English, as, softe^ hrighte^ 
swifte^ * softly, brightly, swiftly;' but when, in process of 
time, the e was lost, these adverbs assumed the appearance of 
adjectives. — Adams, Elements^ § 396. 

Some persons are offended at the apparent irregularity of 
the phrase 'He hits hard^ and prefer to say '- He hits hardly^ 



^THE ROSE SMELLS SWEET.' 17 

which would imply, if it means anything, that * he scarcely 
hits at all.' 

The termination -ly is derived from the Anglo-Saxon "lice^ 
which is formed by adding the termination e to adjectives 
ending in -Vic (-like). 

In later English the case-ending -e was lost, so that the 
adverb and the adjective assume the same form. Thus, for 
example, early may be either an adjective or an adverb. So, 
too, in the phrase ' a godly man,' godly is an adjective ; but 
in the phrase ' to live soberly, righteously, and godly j'' it is an 
adverb meaning ' in a godly manner.' 

In course of time the termination -ly came to be regarded 
as the mark of an adverb ; but where the adj ective has already 
the termination -Zy, the same should not be added to form an 
adverb. We cannot say godlily or manlily^ though we might 
say liolily^ because the I of ^ hol-y ' belongs to the root of the 
word, and does not form part of an adjective termination. 

23- Now let us take these examples : 
The rose smells sweet. 
The wine tastes sour* 

Some critics condemn these sentences altogether ; they say 
that the use of the adjective is incorrect ; and they would alter 
thus : 

The rose smells sweetly. 

The wine tastes sourly, 

Oth^ grammarians defend the sentence * The rose smells 
sweet J on the ground that sweet forms part of the predicate, 
and agrees with the subject, meaning that * the rose is sweet of 
smell,' or * with respect to smell.' 

In English, adjectives do not vary their terminations to 
mark the changes of gender, number, and case; hence we 
might argue for ever upon the word * sweet ' without being 
able to arrive at a definite conclusion. But in Latin the 
adjectives do vary; and if we turned this sentence into Latin 
prose, it would be * Eosa suave olet,' where suave is a neuter 
accusative attached to the verb olet,* 

Hence, arguing from the analogy of the Latin language, we 
say that in the ' Eose smells sweet,' sweet is a neuter accusative, 
used as equivalent to an adverb. Accordingly, the use of an 

* Compare ' anser plebeiuin sapit.' — Petronius (poet.), § 93. 

' Groose tastes vulgar,' i,e. ' has a vulgar taste.' And so 

' Ditlce ridentem Lalagen amabo, 

jyulce loquentem,.'— Horace, Odes^ I. xsii. 23, 



18 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

actual adverb in * The rose smells sweetly ' is strictly correct ; 
and ^ The rose smells sweet ' may also be defended on the 
ground we have taken. 

24. A similar distinction must be observed in the use of 
participles. Let us consider this sentence . 

The messenger came running. 

Here, if running be taken adverbially, the meaning is, that 

* the messenger came at a running pace,'' But if it be taken 
as a participle, it means ^ the messenger came, and he ran as 
he came.' 

Take these lines : I / 

The church of the village \}_ , 
Stood gleaming white in the morning sheen. 

The words lijledming white express the notion of the Latin 
candidus ; * they do not tell us the manner in which the 
church stood, but the colour and appearance of the church 
itself. We may consider that gleaming qualifies the adjective 
white ^ and that the term gleaming white is a predicate-nomi- 
native. 

It is difficult to decide whether the perfect participle active 
should* be taken adverbially as qualifying the predicate- verb, 
or be regarded as completing or filling up the predicate. No 
doubt, in the sentence * William, having conquered Harold, 
ascended the throne,' the participle explains at what time, and 
after what action, William ascended the throne. But, as be- 
fore remarked, we might turn the sentence thus : ^ William 
conquered Harold, and ascended the throne.' On the whole, 
I am inclined to consider * having conquered ' as a kind of 
predicate-nominative. See § 4. 

25. We have next to discuss adverhial phrases^ as qualify- 
ing predicate- verbs. 

1. A preposition, with the substantive which it governs, 
may be used adverbially : as, 
■ {M^ V-( • The enemy advanced with boldness, 

^ Here the phrase * with boldness ' is equivalent to the adverb 
\> boldly.' 

<^ This will furnish us with a rule for the use of that unfortu- 
nate adverb otherwise^ which is very unfairly treated by care- 
less writers. The word means ' in another manner,' and ought 
never to be employed except as an adverb, and in phrases 

* Compare candidus^ 'brilliant white,' with albus^ *dead white;* and niger, 

* jet black,' with ater^ ' dull black.' I ^ 



/ 



CASE ABSOLUTE. 19 

where * in another manner/ ^ in another way/ or words to 
that effect, might stand in its room. * Whoever is found in 
this domain, breaking fences, stealing nuts, or otherwise j will 
be prosecuted with the utmost rigour of the law/ Here 
* otherwise ' is used as the equivalent of a participle ; and it 
is evident that * stealing nuts or in another manner ' makes 
absolute nonsense. K the caution had been worded ' stealing 
nuts or otherwise trespassing,' it would have signified ^ stealing 
nuts, or trespassing in any other way,' which is intelligible 
enough ; for there may be many other acts of trespass beside 
breaking fences and stealing nuts. 

26. — 2. Substantives are often used adverbially to denote 
the time when, the manner how, or the attendant circum- 
stances. 

Since we have lost the dative (or ablative) cases of our 
noun-substantives, there is no form left to distinguish con- 
structions of this kind ; so that a knowledge of syntax is our 
only guide. 

The letters came ever2/ day. 

The vessels sailed every weelc. 

They fought hand to hand. 

But the construction is explained by observing that, in similar 
instances, prepositions are employed : 

They travel by day. 

We fly by night. 

In ordinary English, yesterday, last night, &c., are used ad- 
verbially ; but in Cork we constantly hear on yesterday, on 
last night, and even on to-morrow, where there is a needless 
accumulation of prepositions. 

In the phrases ' once a week,' ^ sixpence a pound,' it is a 
doubtful point whether the word a is the indefinite article, or 
a remnant of the Anglo-Saxon preposition an, which signifies 
*in,'*on.' See § 304. 

27. — 3. Under the head of adverbial phrases, we may men- 
tion the construction whereby a substantive (noun or pronoun) 
and a participle are used absolutely, to mark the time, the 
circumstances, &c. : as, 

This said, they both betook them several ways. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, x. 610. 
With that she fell distract. 
And, her attendants absent, swallowed fire. 

Julius Ccesar, iv. 3. 



20 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

This construction has been called the ^ nominative absolute,' 
or by others the ^ case absolute.' Dr. Adams prefers to call it 
the * dative absolute.' He says, after citing the instances just 
quoted, that the words marked in italics * have no grammatical 
connection with tlie rest of the sentence : i. e., are not governed 
by any word or words in the sentence to which they are at- 
tached, and are therefore called Datives Absolute^ or Detached 
Datives, In Latin, the ablative is employed in these detached 
or absolute phrases ; in Greek, the genitive ; and in Anglo- 
Saxon, the dative. This A.-S. dative was the origin of the 
absolute construction in English. Most grammarians, since the 
case-endings are lost, prefer to call these words nominatives. 
But the loss of a suffix cannot convert one case into another. 
The meaning conveyed by these absolute words cannot be ex- 
pressed by a true nominative.' — Adams, Elements^ § 493. 

In support of this view, we may take the instance quoted 
by Dr. Adams from Milton : 

And, him destroyed^ 
Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
For whom all this was made, all this will soon 
Follow, as to him linked in weal or woe. 

Paradise Lost, ix. 130-3 

To which we may add, from the same poet, 

by whose aid 

This inaccessible high strength, the seat 

Of Deity supreme, us dispossessed, 

He trusted to have seized. — Ibid, vii. 140-3. 

This proves that Milton, at all events, thought the construc- 
tion demanded an oblique case, that is, some case other than 
the nominative. But Milton was a learned poet, and here, as 
elsewhere, he may have been imitating the Latin or Greek. 

As the point is doubtful in English, we may be content to 
employ the term Case Absolute in reference to these construc- 
tions, leaving the particular case an open question. But in 
practice we should be very careful in using this construction, 
especially at the beginning of a sentence. For the reader may 
mistake the noun used absolutely, thinking it a subject-nomi- 
native; and presently, when the true subject-nominative is 
introduced, like the true Amphitryon in the play, it appears 
that another has usurped his place. 

28. The following classification of adverbs and adverbial 
phrases may be useful : — 



INFINITIYE USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 



21 



Adverbs arc frequently classed in accordance with their 
meaning — 

once, always, daily, before, 
here, aloft, around, 
much, very, greatly, almost, 
well, thus, truly, so. 



1. Ti7ne . 

2. Place . 

3. Degree 

4. Manner 

5. Cause 
and 

Inference 

Many of the adverbs may have their places supplied by an 
adverbial or prepositional phrase — 



}■ 



therefore, wherefore, hence. 



1. 


Time . . 


. always 


= at all times. 






daily 


= every day. 


2. 


Place . . 


. here 


= in this place. 






aloft 


= on high. 


3. 


Degree . . 


. greatly 


= in a great measure. 


4. 


Manner . 


. thus 


= in this way. 






truly 


= in truth. 


5. 


Cause 


. therefore 


= for this cause. 




and > 




= for this reason. 




. wherefore 


= for which cause. 




Inference 




= for which reason. 



THE INPINITIVE MOOD OP A VEEB USED AS A 
SUBSTANTIVE. 

29. * Sometimes the Infinitive is the Nominative case to 
the Verb,' said the old rule. In truth, the Infinitive is a 
Verbal Substantive, and is used sometimes as a nominative, 
sometimes as an objective. 

But in the English language this point is attended with 
peculiar difficulties, arising from the fact that our grammatical 
forms have been subject to various changes, and that the 
origin of those forms has sometimes been forgotten or ob- 
scured. 

The first thing, therefore, is to inquire, what is the English 
infinitive ? 

If we are asked what is the infinitive of the verb love^ we 
answer to love, and we call to the ^ sign ' of the infinitive. 

But here, at the very outset, we must make a distinction, 
which is of great importance. Sometimes, indeed, to is a 
mere sign of the infinitive, and may be omitted in certain 



22 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

instances. For example, we say * He dares to go,^ and ' He 
dares not go.^ After many auxiliaries it is usual to omit the 
sign to ; and so also after other verbs, as hid, make, ^ They 
hid him. ccme,'' ^ThejmaJce him leap;^ where come and leap 
are infinitives dependent upon the governing verbs ^ bid ' and 
^ make.' 

In older English there are variations both ways ; our fore- 
fathers sometimes emitted the sign where we use it, and used 
the sign where we omit it. 
So Shakespeare : 

You ought not ivalk, 

Jidius Ccesar^ i. 1. 
and on the other hand, 

I durst ^ my lord, to wager she is honest. 

Othello, iv. 2. 

There are also many varieties in provincial dialects ; in 
some counties we may hear ^ They helped him mow the grass,' «^ 
for ^ to mow.^ 

30. But, in many other instances, the word to^ so far from 
being a mere sign, is a true preposition, meaning in order to ; 
as, ^ He came to see me,' that is, ' in order to see me,' or 
* for the purpose of seeing me.' This distinction is to be 
carefully remembered when we are translating from English 
into other languages. When to is a mere sign, we may gene- 
rally render the verb by the Latin infinitive. But it is a 
gross error to do so where to signifies in order to ; in such 
instances we must employ the preposition ad with a gerund, 
or with a noun coupled with the participle in -dus^ or we must 
use ut with a verb in the subjunctive mood. 

At one period in the history of the language our forefathers 
forgot the original force of the preposition to in these con- 
structions, and inserted an additional preposition for ; as, 
What went ye out for to see? 

Matthew^ xi. 8. 

In some parts of the country similar phrases are even yet 
occasionally heard ; and sometimes for is employed before - 
the sign to^ where there is not even the shadow of an excuse 
to justify it ; as, ' He told me for to do it J* 

31. But in English we have another form of the infinitive 
in 'ing, the same in sound and spelling as the present par- 
ticiple. Thus instead of saying * to see is to helieve^^ we gene- 
rally say * seeing is believing,'* In like manner 4t is healthful 
to rise early,' may be expressed * rising early is healthful.' 



FORMS IN -ING. 23 

In the sentence * riding is pleasant/ or ^ he loves riding,^ 
the form riding is used substantively, and is really an infini- 
tive, or, as some prefer to call it, a gerund. But in the sen- 
tence * he came riding at full speed,' riding is a participle, and 
has the force of an adjective. 

Grammarians have produced much needless perplexity by 
confounding the two forms, and by supposing that a participle 
or a participial phrase can ever be used substantively. The 
very employment of these forms must convince us that the^ 
are infinitives, and not participles ; for the participle partakes 
of the nature of an adjective, and not of a substantive. — See 
Whately, Logic ^ II. 1. 3. 

32. The forms in -ing demand very careful attention. For the 
English termination -ing represents no less than three distinct 
endings in Anglo-Saxon — namely, those of the infinitive, the 
present participle, and the verbal substantive. The Anglo- 
Saxon verb writariy * to write,' gives us the following forms : — 

Infinitive : ivritan, ' to write,' ' writing.' 

Gerund : to writanne^ * to write,' * for writing.' 

Present Participle : writende^ ^ writing.' 

It so happens that the Verbal Substantive derived from this 
verb ends in -m^, loriting ; but the more usual termination of 
verbal substantives is -ung^ as mearcung^ ^ a marking,' clcensung^ 
* a cleansing.' 

33. The so-called Gerund in Anglo-Saxon appears to be 
nothing more than the Dative case of the infinitive governed 
by the preposition to. When the infinitive was used substan- 
tively, the form writan was employed for the nominative and 
accusative cases ; to writanne was used as the dative. 

In process of time, 

ivritan became write ^ writing ; 
to ivritanne became to write : 

and the following confusion took place : — The infinitive form 
writing was confounded with the participle present, and its 
true origin was forgotten. The form to write was not confined 
to phrases denoting a purpose, where a dative case is proper, 
but was used generally for an infinitive, even in phrases re- 
quiring a nominative or an accusative case. 
For example, we say 

To err is human. 

But etymologically, this is as great a violation of the prin- 
ciples of Anglo-Saxon grammar, as Ad errandum est humanum 



24 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

would be a violation of Latin grammar. No doubt, custom 
sanctions our present usage; but, etymologically, to err re- 
presents tbe dative of the infinitive used substantively, and not 
the nominative. 

34. Thus the nominative and accusative writ-an assumed 
the forms writ-en^ writ-in, and finally writ-ing. This form of 
the infinitive is also known to modern grammarians as the 
Gerund J a term borrowed from the Latin Grammar, and one 
which might, in the opinion of Dr. Adams, be advantageously 
excluded from the grammar of the English language. — See 
Adams, Elements^ § 287. 

However, since the term Gerund has obtained admission 
into many schools, some teachers may wish to retain it, as ap- 
plicable to the form in -ing. But if so, they should carefully 
distinguish between, 

1. The Gerund in -ing^ as writing, 

2. The Gerund with tOj as to write ; wh<jre to signifies in 

order to, and must not be confounded with to the 

ordinary sign of the infinitive : thus. 

He loves to ride Infinitive. 

He came to see me • . . • . Gerund. 

The termination of the present participle in Anglo-Saxon 
was -ende, which we have converted into -ing. But in Old 
English and Old Scottish the participial termination -and was 
preserved : 

Pointes and sleeves be well sittandj 
Eight and streight on the hand. 

Chaucer, Romaunt of the Bose, 2264:. 

Before them all there came ridand 
With helm on heid and spear in hand, 
Sir Henry the Boon, the worthy, 
That was a wicht knicht, and a hardy. 

Barbour, Bruce. 

His glitterand armour shined far away. 

Like glauncing light of Phoebus' brightest ray. 

Spenser, Faerie Queene, I. vii. 

The Anglo-Saxon verbal substantive writing is the same 
in termination and meaning with our own 'writing,' — See 
Adams, Elements of the English Language, §§ 286, 287 ; and 
compare Max Muller, Science of Language, Second Series, 
pp. 15—18. 



FORMS IN -ING. 25 

35. It is very necessary, in English, to discriminate between 
these three different words, infinitive, present participle, and 
verbal substantive, which in form appear to be the same — 
icriting. 

The infinitive can be distinguished from the participle by this 
test, that the infinitive may be used substantively ; whereas 
the participle can be employed as an adjective only, and never 
as a substantive. 

It is not always easy to distinguish between the infinitive 
(writing) and the verbal substantive {writing). For example, 
in this sentence, ^ the breaking of the waves upon the shore is 
harmonious,' some persons might contend that breaking is an 
infinitive used substantively ; and others that it is a verbal 
substantive. But in phrases where the infinitive governs an 
objective case, there can be no doubt whatever ; for the 
infinitive, though used substantively, may retain its powers 
as a verb ; whereas the verbal substantive never has any such 
powers. Thus in the sentence, ^ Honestly meeting difficulties 
is wiser than shunning them,' meeting and shunning are mani- 
festly infinitives (or gerunds, if that term be preferred). 

36. In the preceding pages we have remarked the several con- 
structions in which the infinitive is used substantively. We 
shall now recapitulate them, in order to obtain a clear view of 
the whole question, making some additional observations upon 
points of interest. 

The infinitive is used, 

1. As a subject- nominative : 

To walk is healthy. 
Walking is agreeable. 

2. As a predicate-nominative : 

To hear is to ohey. 
Seeing is believing, 

3. As a primary objective : 

John loves to study. 

He enjoys walking in the fields. 

4. As a secondary objective : 

The general forced him to serve. 
I counsel you to wait patiently. 

37. Particular care must be taken in analysing sentences 
which contain an infinitive dependent upon verbs of perception 
or sensation, ^ seeing,' ^ hearing,' ' knowing,' &c. In reference 

c 



26 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

to this construction, we sliall examine the doctrine of the 
subject-accusative. 

Suppose we take the sentence, 

I know him to be eloquent. 

We shall endeavour, first of all, to prove that him is not, 
strictly speaking, an objective ; but that the whole phrase 
' him to be eloquent ' is the object of the verb ' know.' 

Another form of the sentence would be, 

I know that [he is eloquent,] 

and since, by the idiom of the English language, we are allowed 
in such constructions to omit that, we may say, 
I know [he is eloquent.] 
Now this clause ^he is eloquent' is really a subordinate 
clause, Avhich may be analysed separately ; thus — 
he ... . Subject- nominative, 
is .... Predicate-verh, 
eloquent . . Predicate-nominative, 

If, however, we wish to throw this clause into a form imme- 
diately dependent upon the governing verb, to make it, in 
fact, the object of the verb ^ know,' we turn the subject- 
nominative into the subject-acc2^5a^/ye ; the indicative is into 
the infinitive to be ; and the predicate-?^o??^ma^^^;6 into the pre- 
diiQ'iXie^accusative ; and we say, 

I know [him to be eloquent.] 
Ohs, — The Latin language shows the form of the predicate- 
accusative. 

Ille est facundws : ^ He is eloquent.' 
Scio ilium esse facundwm : ^I know him to be eloquent.' 

That the word him is not an objective dependent upon 
Iznow, must be clear from the following consideration. We 
do not mean to assert that we know him absolutely ; we may 
be ignorant of his character, or of his general capabilities. 
We merely assert that we are acquainted with his merit as a 
speaker. But as the whole clause is the object of the verb 
* know,' and stands in the position of an objective case, the 
subject. oi the clause is attracted into the accusative, and the 
indicative is turned into that part of the verb which is not 
modified by number and person, namely the infinitive. Finally, 
the predicate of the clause, ^ eloquent,' must agree in case with 
the subject, and is therefore in the accusative ; hence we term 
it the predicate-accusative. 



SUB JECT-ACCUS ATI VE. 2 7 

38. We have, in this enquiry, adopted the term accusative 
in preference to objective, in order to avoid the harshness of 
talking about the * subject-objective.' Although, when pro- 
perly explained, that term is correct enough : it means * the 
subject in an objective clause.' 

Practically, however, I have observed that in constructions 
where a subject-accusative stands before an infinitive, we 
may distinguish two different relations. 

1. Sometimes, as we have just seen, the subjective-accu- 
sative stands to the infinitive in the relation of a subject- 
nominative to a finite verb : 

I know [him to be eloquent] 

is equivalent to 

I know [he is eloquent.] 

2. At other times, the subject-accusative stands to the 
infinitive in the relation of a substantive in the possessive (or 
genitive) case to another substantive : 

I wish [him to stay] 
is equivalent to 

I wish [his staying] : 

for what I want, wdth respect to him, is * his staying.' 

Thus the sentences 

We heard the thunder 7'ollj 
They saw the ship sink, 
I never knew him to fail, 

might be paraphrased 

We heard the thunder'' s roll, 
They saw the ship's sinJcing, 
I never 'kn.om failure on his part. 



o2 



28 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Chapter IL 
SIMPLE SENTENCES OTHER THAN INDICATIVE. 

39. Hitherto we have considered Simple Indicative Sen- 
tences, otherwise called propositions or statements. We have 
now to deal with other Simple Sentences, namely : 

Interrogative Sentences or Questions. 
Imperative Sentences or Commands. 
Optative Sentences or Wishes. 

First of all, we have to remark a variety of form ; a change 
in the order of words : as for example : 
Indicative : The messenger speaks. 
Interrogative : Speaks the messenger ? 
more commonly, 

Does the messenger speak ? 
or, 

Is the messenger speaking ? 
Imperative : Messenger ! speak. 
Optative : May the messenger speak ! 

Now the method of analysis, which we have discussed, is 
founded upon Indicative Sentences or statements ; and a very 
important part of the sentence was termed the predicate or 
* thing stated,'' We can therefore easily understand that 
there will be a difficulty in applying this form of analysis to 
sentences wherein there is no statement at all, but where a 
question, a command, or a wish is expressed. 

40. Mr. Mason endeavours to meet the difficulty, by dis- 
tinguishing between the word (or sign), and the thing sig- 
nified ; between the subject of a sentence, and the subject of 
discourse. He says : 

The subject of a sentence stands for some object of thought: the 
predicate denotes some fact or idea which we connect with that object, 
and the union between the two is effected by the copula. 

But this union may be viewed in more ways than one. 

1. When it is our intention to declare that the connexion, which is 
indicated between the subject of discourse and the idea denoted by the 
predicate, does exist, the sentence is affirmative ; as, * Thomas left the 
room.' 

Note. — A negative sentence is only a particular variety of affirmative 
sentence. If we deny that John is here by saying, 'John is not here/ 
we affirm that John is not here. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES OTHER THAN INDICATIVE. 29 

2. When it is our wish to know whether the connexion referred to 
subsists, the sentence is interrogative; as^ 'Did Thomas leave the 
room ? ' 

3. When we express our will that the connexion, between the object 
of thought described by the subject and that which is expressed by the 
predicate, shoidd subsist, the sentence that results is called an impera- 
tive sentence ; as, ' Thomas, leave the room.' 

4. When we express a wish that the connexion may subsist, the 
sentence that results is called an optative sentence ; as, * May you 
speedily recover ! ' 

In some imperative sentences, the will is so weakened as to become 
simply a wish ; as, ' Defend us, Lord ;' ' Sing, heavenly muse.' The 
grammatical force of the sentence, however, is not altered by this. 

In all the above-named kinds of sentences, the grammatical con- 
nexion between the subject and the verb is the same. It is sufficient, 
therefore, to take one as a type of all. The affirmative sentence is the 
most convenient for this purpose. — English Grammar^ § 356. 

41. No doubt, the affirmative sentence is the most con- 
venient. It is the form upon which the system is based. But 
we must consider, whether it be true that the grammatical 
connexion is the same in all these cases, and that the gram- 
matical force is not altered. 

In Interrogative sentences the order of words is changed ; 
no statement is made, but a question is asked. 

In Imperative sentences the nominative becomes vocative, 
and the indicative mood is changed to the imperative. We 
surely cannot say that a noun in the vocative case forms the 
subject of a verb in the imperative mood. For the expression 
^ Thomas, leave the room,' means this : ' Thomas, I address 
you, and my command to you is to leave the room.' This 
may, probably, furnish a reason why, in many languages, the 
infinitive sometimes takes the place of an imperative. Even 
if the vocative be termed the * nominative of address,' that 
does not obviate the difficulty, unless it can be shown that 
the vocative becomes a * 52(5;'6c^-nominative.' 

There is, no doubt, a certain analogy running through the 
ideas expressed in these various forms of sentence ; but I 
think we shall find that an attempt to apply the terms subject 
and predicate to Imperative sentences, or even to Interro- 
gatives and Optatives, is encumbered with difficulty. 

42. Dr. Latham, in dealing with this question, is more 
guarded. He says : 

All statements, assertions, or declarations are propositions. 

Is the converse of this true ? 

Are all propositions statements, assertions, or declarations ? 

Up to the present stage of our enquiries, the three parts, members, 



30 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

or constituent elements of a proposition — the two somethings and the 
link that joins them — the subject ^ predicate^ and copula — have been 
considered from one point of view only. 

Let ns now, however, instead of saying 
Bread is dear, 
say, 

Is bread dear? 

Does this latter combination of words constitute a proposition ? 

It certainly has some of the elements of one, and those very impor- 
tant ones. 

It contains the two words significant of the two ' somethings ' — bread, 
dear. It contains the word which connects them — is. 

It contains all this, and it contains nothing else. A chemist would 
say that a sentence, like the one in question, gave us the same elements 
as the other, with a different arrangement. 

Nevertheless, there is no assertion, no statement, no declaration : 
none, at least, of a direct and straightforward kind. 

Instead of this, there is a question. 

Now, at the first view, few things can be more unlike each other 
than a question and an assertion. The latter implies knowledge, the 
former the want of it. The latter contains a certain amount of infor- 
mation, real or supposed ; the former seeks for such information ; and 
for this reason, the chief works on logic have, formally and by name, 
excluded Questions from the class of Propositions. All, however, that 
the grammarian says is, that a question is not an assertion, a declara- 
tion, or a statement. All that the grammarian says is, that whenever 
there is an assertion, a declaration, or a statement, there is also a pro- 
position. He never says that wherever there is a proposition there is 
also a statement. 

The fact is, that in grammar a Question is neither more nor less than 
a variety of the ordinary proposition, implying that the subject is some- 
thing concerning which the speaker requires information; something 
unexplained, but not incapable of explanation ; explanation that may 
possibly be supplied by the person spoken to. 

The sentence — What is this?=This is what? 

What=something upon which information is requested. 

It may be objected, however, that it is not the habit of language to 
use such expressions as this is what ? but, on the contrary, to prefer 
the form, tvhat is this ? 

All that need be said upon this point is, that it is not the general 
custom of the English, and certain other languages, to do so. The 
English, and certain other languages, transpose the predicate and 
subject when the proposition is a question; but there is no necessity 
for their doing so. It is merely a particular pr^y^tice, and no general 
law of language. 

A question, then, or interrogation, is only an ordinary assertional, or 
declaratory proposition, with its parts transposed. — Logic in its Appli- 
cation to Language, § 17. 

43. Now in comparing an Indicative with an Interrogative 
sentence we may, indeed, find the same words^ with a different 
arrangement; but whether we have the same elements is 



SIMPLE SENTENCES OTHER THAN INDICATIYE. 31 

quite another question, the truth of which Dr. Latham 
assumes. 

In the indicative sentence we have the * subject of a state- 
ment^'' and a predicate or thing stated. But in the interroga- 
tive sentence we find * the subject of an enquiry ^^ and some- 
thing interrogated. 

And even though we might allow the term ^subject ' or 

* subject-nominative ' to be used in both cases, it is only by 
a violent extension of meaning that we can call a ' thing in- 
terrogated ' a predicate^ when in fact nothing is predicated. 

Doubtless, from the imperfection of all human language, 
we are often obliged to admit extensions of meaning ; but this 
should be allowed only in cases of strong necessity, when no 
ingenuity can devise another term. Poverty of language 
should never be made an excuse for want of precision ; and 
certainly no kind of education can be worse, than to acquire 
the habit of using terms without a clear perception of their 
meaning. But if a pupil is taught to employ the term predi- 
cate where there is no predication, he is in danger of falling 
into habits of inaccuracy. 

44. Thus we find that there are difficulties about the so- 
called '• predicates ' of interrogative sentences. But in im- 
perative sentences there are difficulties about ' subject ' as 
well as ^ predicate.' 

Dr. Morell says, (Grammar , p. 71) : 'In an imperative sen- 
tence the ' subject ' thou or 2/e is often omitted, though it is 
still involved in the use of the verb ; as ' go (thou) home ; ' 

* hasten {ye) into the town.' 

According to this, a noun or pronoun in the vocative case 
may be the subject of a sentence. 

Mr. Mason tells us, (English Grammar ^ § 380) that * the 
subject of a verb in English is always put in the nominative 
case ; ' and yet in § 505, he analyses thus : 

* Give me that large book.' 

Subject Hhou' (understood). 

Predicate ..... 'give.' 

Object of verb . . . . ' book.' 

&c. &c. 

Here give does not express a predication but a command ; 
and thou, which is supplied to do duty for a ' subject,' is cer- 
tainly not a subject-nominative. 



32 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

45. Dr. Latham admits the greater difficulty in this in- 
stance. He says, {Logic in its Application to Language^ §1^)- 

At the first view, few things can be more unUke each other than an 
assertion and a command ; indeed, it may be admitted that the propo- 
sitional character of commands is less clear than that of questions. 
Words like walk, stand, &c., convey neither an affirmation, nor a 
denial, as a matter of direct assertion. Nevertheless, they are essen- 
tially affirmative, and, by attaching to them the word not, can be made 
negative; walknoti stand not, fear not, eat not, drink not, do not. 
Again: — 

"Walk =thoii be walking. 

Stand — thou be standing. 

Eat =thou be eating, &c. 

And what is thou but a subject, he but a copula, and walking but a 
predicate ? 

46. In the first place, I object to the resolution of ivalk 
into thou he walking. But if we let that pass, for the sake of 
argument, he is not a copula in the logical sense. If we wish 
to reduce the expression walk to the form of subject, copula, 
predicate, we must say, ' My command to you is that you 
should walk,' or ' My command to you is to walk.' 

To take a form applicable to indicative sentences, and to 
force it upon imperative sentences, must inevitably lead to 
confusion. 

The case of Optative sentences is somewhat similar to 
that of Interrogatives ; so that no further remark is necessary 
upon that part of the subject. 

47. The whol-e system must be revised. Even in dealing 
with simple indicative sentences, the youthful student is often 
quite bewildered with logical subjects and grammatical sub- 
jects, logical predicates and grammatical predicates, enlarge- 
ments of the subject, and extensions of the predicate. But 
when he has to apply the same principles of analysis to inter- 
rogative, imperative, or optative sentences, where, to say the 
least, the application is very dubious, it is not surprising if he 
despairs of the whole business. 

I believe that, in some of our Middle Class Examinations, 
the terms * subject ' and * predicate ' are used at random ; 
w^hile very few of the candidates have a clear notion of the 
principles upon which the system of analysis depends. 

Before schoolmasters adopt this method, they would do w^ell 
to consider, (1) whether the system itself is sound; (2) whe- 
ther the books which profess to teach it are free from serious 
error. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 33 

In the present work an attempt is made to explain In- 
dicative Sentences, Simple and Compound. And until the 
method of analysis is more fully developed, I venture to 
suggest that Interrogative, Imperative, and Optative sentences 
should be treated on the old-fashioned parsing system. 

Certainly, nothing can be worse than the habit of straining 
terms, and forcing their application in cases for which they 
were not designed. 



Chapter III. 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



48. We have seen that a Simple Sentence contains one 
subject-nominative, and one predicate-verb. Any sentence 
containing more than one subject-nominative, or more than 
one predicate-verb, is called a Compound Sentence, 

A Compound Sentence may contain two or more independent 
sentences, either coupled by conjunctions, or standing side by 
side ; as, 

1. Hannibal crossed the Alps, and the Eomans marched 

to meet him. 

2. He came, he saw, he conquered. 

In the first of these examples, the two independent sentences 
are joined together by the conjunction and\ in the second, 
three sentences stand side by side. And since, in each 
example, the sentences are of equal ranlc^ they are called co- 
ordinate sentences^ from the Latin con-, ^ together,' and ordo, 
' a rank.' In the first example we have two co-ordinate 
sentences in one compound sentence : and in the second, we 
have three co-ordinate sentences in one compound sentence. 
Thus: 

First Co-ordinate : Hannibal crossed the Alps. 

Second Co-ordinate : The Eomans marched to meet him. 

So too: 

First Co-ordinate .... He came. 

Second Co-ordinate .... He saw. 

Third Co-ordinate .... He conquered. 

49. But, as language progresses, there is a tendency to pass 
from the Co-ordinate to the Cor-relative form, 

c3 



34 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

In the older stages of a language, we often find Co-ordinate sen- 
tences, where the later stage would exhibit Correlative forms. In the 
Greek of Homer and Pindar, for instance, we observe independent 
sentences introduced by demonstrative pronouns or adverbs, where, in 
later Grreek, one of the sentences would be thrown into the relative 
form, introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb. Even in later 
authors we meet with occasional examples of similar construction, as, 
*And it was now late . . . and the Corinthians suddenly began to back 
water,' for, ' when it was now late . , , the Corinthians,' &c. : ^HSt; dh 
^v oipe , . . KoX ol KopivdLOL i^airivrjs irp-d^vav eKpovovro. — Thuc. i. 50. 
So too, * And it was now about forenoon, and the station, where ho 
intended to halt, was near at hand : ' koX ^Stj re ^v aficpl ayopav ttA-^- 
Oovcrav, koX irKficiuv fiv 6 araQfxbs %vQol e^eWe KaraXveiu. — Xen. Anab. I. 
viii. 1. 

In Anglo-Saxon this form is very common : so, ^a*" Herodes thset 
gehyrde, tha wear^ he gedrefed : ' then Herod heard that, then became 
he troubled,' (Matth. ii. 3.) Sometimes the particle is doubled in the 
first sentence ; as, tha ^a men slepon, tha com his feonda sum, ' the7i 
then men slept, then came one of his foes.' — Matth. xiii. 25. 

Observe that, in this form, a demonstrative particle stands at the 
beginning of each sentence. But when, in course of time, one sentence 
was made relative, and was introduced by a relative particle, the other, 
employed as a principal sentence, no longer needed an introductory 
particle. 

We may suppose the process to have been of the following kind : — 

1. Then Herod heard this, the7i was he troubled. 

2. When Herod heard this, theti he was troubled, 

3. When Herod heard this, he was troubled. 

Even in modern composition, after several sentences commencing 
with when or if, the conclusion sometimes receives additional emphasis 
by the introduction of the7i, or then indeed, 

50. Now, the view commonly taken by grammarians is some- 
what to this effect : that in passing from the Co-ordinate to 
the Correlative form, one of the co-ordinate sentences retains 
its rank, while the other falls into a subordinate position. 

The sentence which retains its rank is usually termed the 
• Principal Sentence ; and that which takes an inferior rank is 
called the Subordinate Sentence, or the Dependent Sentence. 

I am inclined to think that the terms Subordinate and De- 
pendent do not exactly represent the state of the case ; and in 
this connexion I prefer the term clause to sentence. 

In point of fact, the Correlative clauses are, respectively, 
relative and demonstrative. For example, in the compound 
sentence, ' When Herod heard this, he was troubled,' we 
have : 

When Herod heard this, . Relative Clause. 

he was troubled, .... Demonstrative Clause, 

* ^ equivalent to c?A, is pronounced like our ih in *?7iat, */^ine,' '?^ose.* The 
modern English th does double duty, for th as in ' thm,' and for (/A as in * ihinQ* 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 35 

However, not to multiply terms, we may accept, in this con- 
nexion, the terms suggested by Becker ; Principal Clause, and 
Accessory Clause, thus : 

When Herod heard this, . Accessory Clause, 
he was troubled, .... Principal Clause, 

51. We shall consider Compound Sentences under three 
divisions : — 

I. Compound Sentences containing Co-ordinate Sen- 
tences. 
II. Compound Sentences containing Coreelative 

Clauses. 
in. CoMPOL^'D Sentences comprising Subordinate 
Clauses. 
We have then, 

52. — L Compound Sentences containing Co-ordinate Sen- 
tences. 

The Co-ordinate sentences which form a Compound Sen- 
tence may, with regard to signification, stand in various 
relations to one another. The second may add something to 
the meaning of the first ; or choice may be implied between 
them ; or the one may stand in opposition to the other. Ac- 
cordingly we may divide them into three classes: (1) Copu- 
lative, (2) Alternative, (3) Adversative. 

1. Copulative. 

53. Here the first sentence makes a statement, while the 
second or following sentences furnish an addition to the mean- 
ing : as, 

Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, 
And the long grass o'ertops the mouldering wall ; 
And J trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand, 
Far, far away, thy children leave the land. 

Goldsmith, Deserted Village, 

2. Alternative, 

54. Sometimes two or more sentences joined together im- 
ply the notion of choice : as, 

He must pay the money, or he must go to prison. 
He must work hard, or he will not succeed. 

In the full form, both the co-ordinate sentences have intro- 



36 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

ductory particles; in the affirmative, either ... or ; in the 
negative, neither . . . nori as, 

Either you must come, or your friend must write. 
Neither the letter came, nor was the money paid. 
Ohs, — When ' nor ' signifies ' and not ' it has a copulative, and 
not an alternative force : as, 

My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, 
Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate 
Upon the fortune of this present year. 

Merchant of Venice^ i. 1. 

3. Adversative, 
55. Here the co-ordinate sentences are in opposition to one 
another ; either absolutely, in the way of negation, or by way 
of limitation and contrast. 

Men may come, and men may go ; 
But I go. on for ever. Tennyson. 

These were thy charms, hut all these charms are fled. 

Goldsmith, Deserted Village. 

56. — 11. Compound Sentences containing Correlative 

Clauses. 
Ohs. — This section comprehends the cases where the Accessory 
Clause is otherwise termed the Adverbial Sentence, or 
the Adverbial Clause. 

In this division we shall observe some remains of old Co- 
ordinate forms ; and we shall find some Compound Sentences 
exhibiting a change more or less complete from the Co-ordi- 
nate to the Correlative form. 

We have remarked that, as language progresses, there is a 
tendency to pass from the co-ordinate to the correlative form 
of sentence. The co-ordinate sentences are resolved into what 
we call the Principal Clause and the Accessory Clause. 

We observed too, that in many cases each co-ordinate sen- 
tence originally had an introductory particle (Adverb or Con- 
junction). 

As a general rule the Principal Clause no longer needs this 
introduction ; but the particle, sometimes in a modified form, 
remains with the Accessory clause. 

When the second of two co-ordinate sentences becomes the 
principal it frequently takes the first place, and the accessory 
clause is transferred to the second place. 

We shall consider the various relations of (1) Time, (2) 
Place, (3) Manner, (4) Degree, (5} Cause and Effect, (6) 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. . 37 

Reason and Conclusion, (7) Action (or State) and Result, 
(8) Purpose and End, (9) Condition and Consequence, (10) 
Concession and Declaration. 

If we arrange these, as tliey would stand, if each clause 
were introduced by an appropriate particle, we have : — 







I. 


II. 


1. 


Time. 


Whe?i . 


, then. 


2. 


Place. 


WJiere . 


. there. 




}j • •. • • 


Whence 


, thence. 




,, . . • • 


Whither 


. thither. 


8. 


Manner 


As 


. so. 


4. 


Degree (equality) 


As 


. so. 




)? 5? • 


The . 


. the. 




„ (inequality) 


• 1 


. than. 


5. 


Cause and Effect 


Because 


. therefore. 


6. 


Reason and Conclusion 


Because 


. therefore. 


7. 


Action (or State) and 
Result 


]{So) . 


. that. 


8. 


Purpose and End 


So . 


. that. 


9. 


Condition and Conse- 


]lf . 


. then. 



quence 

10. Concession and Deck- 1 ,777 7 . 

ration . . ^\ Though . yet. 

1. Ti7ne. 
57. In the older forms, we find when answered by t?ten ; as, 
WJien Israel was a child, then I loved him. 

Hosea, xi. 1. 

When I would have healed Israel, then the iniquity of 
Ephraim was discovered. Id. vii. 1. 

The second co-ordinate has a tendency to become the Prin- 
cipal Clause, and the particle then is omitted ; as, 

Wlien Ephraim spake trembling, he exalted himself in 
Israel. Hosea, xiii. 1. 

The next step is, that the Principal Clause takes the first 
place ; as. 

Every one listens, when he speahs, 

I was glad when he had finished. 

He read while I wrote. 

He punished the boy, whenever he did wrong. 

The particle *when,' which introduces the Accessory 
"Clause, is variously termed a ^ relative adverb,' a * conjunctive 



38 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

adverb,' an ' adverbial conjunction,' or a ^ continuative con- 
junction.' 

58. The clauses introduced by these particles are commonly 
termed adverbial clauses^ because they are supposed to stand 
in the place of single adverbs, and to be used in qualifying 
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Mr. Mason maintains {English Grammar^ § 424), that the 
relative adverbs have a double force. He says : ^ It must be 
observed that the relative adverbs, which introduce such 
clauses, not only connect the adverbial clause with the prin- 
cipal clause, but themselves qualify the verb of' the clause, 
which they introduce.' 

For example, in the sentence, ^ Every one listens, when he 
speaks,^ the adverbial clause ' when he speaks ' is said to 
qualify the verb ' listens ' ; the particle * when ' connects the 
adverbial clause with the principal clause * every one listens,' 
and itself qualifies the verb ' speaks ' in the subordinate sen- 
tence * when he speaks.' 

This explanation is far from satisfactory, and it seems 
laboured. It is more simple to deduce the sentence from the 
co-ordinate form : 

When he speaks, then every one listens. 
When he speaks, every one listens. 
Every one listens, when he speaks. 

59. Other connective particles used in reference to time 
are, whenever^ as, as soon as, noiv that, ere, luhile, whilst, until, 
as often as. 

As he came, they went away. 

JVow that you have come, we will go. 

He stood there, whilst the house was on fire. 

He remained, until the work was done. 

He writes, as often as he wants money. 

The words hefore and after are originally prepositions ; but 
they were used as connective particles in the phrases ' before 
that,' and ' after that.' 

Before that certain came from James, he did eat with 
the Gentiles. Galatians, ii. 12. 

Surely, after that I was turned, I repented; and 
after that I was instructed, I smote upon my 
thigh. Jeremiah, xxxi. 19. 

In reading such a passage, it is a mistake to lay any em- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 39 

phasis upon that'^ the accent should fall upon ^before,' *dfter;' 
and * that ' sliould be lightly passed over as an enclitic. 

2. Place. 

60- We find examples of the old form ivliere , . . there ; as, 
Wkere your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

Matthetv vi. 21. 
If we compare the Anglo-Saxon version of this passage, we 
observe that the clauses are both introduced by thcer, ' there ' : 
thcer thin gold-hord ys, thcer ys thin heorte, 
the7'e thy gold-hoard is, there is thine heart, 
where thy treasure is, there is thy heart. 

In modern English ' there ' is generally omitted. The se- 
cond sentence becomes the Principal Clause, frequently taking 
the first place ; and the first sentence becomes an Accessory 
Clause, introduced by where, wherever, whither, whence : as, 
I will remain, ivhere you are, 
Wliither thou goest, I will go. 
He returned, ivhence he came, 
Ohs. — Instead of whence, some writers say from whence ; to 
which an objection has been raised, that ' whence ' 
means ' from which place ; ' and that therefore in 
* from whence ' the word from is superfluous. 

8. Manner. 

61. Co-ordinate sentences indicating manner or resemblance 
are introduced by the particles as , . . so, respectively : thus. 
As the hart panteth after the water brooks, 
So panteth my soul after thee, O God. 

Psalm xlii. 1. 

This is the true explanation of such a Compound Sentence ; 
namely, that it comprises two co-ordinate sentences. An at- 
tempt to regard one of the clauses as a Principal Sentence, and 
the other as a Subordinate Sentence, is to introduce needless 
perplexity. We may also remark, both here and elsewhere, 
that in the second clause, there is a tendency to invert the 
order of words; to put the predicate-verb before the subject- 
nominative. 

The introductory particle so is oflen omitted ; then the sen- 
tence, before which it stood, is regarded as a Principal Clause, 
and frequently occupies the first place ; thus, 

He succeeds, as his father succeeded before him. 



40 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

He did as he was told. 

It turned out as I expected. 

As I hear J I judge. 

62. Mr. Mason remarks, {English Grammar, § 429,) ^ Here 
the dependent clauses qualify the verbs of the main sentence, 
while the adverb as refers to the manner of the action spoken 
of in the dependent clauses themselves. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that clauses beginning with as are generally 
elliptical. At full length the above would be, 

He did as he was told to do, 

where as indicates the idea of manner with relation to the 
verb to do. 

It turned out as I expected it to turn out, 

where as indicates the idea of manner with relation to the 
verb to turn out.^ 

With all deference to Mr. Mason, this seems to be laboured. 
A comparison of the co-ordinate forms would furnish a simpler 
explanation : 

As he was told, so he did. 

As I expected, so it turned out. 

We do not find co-ordinate sentences in the form as . , . as. 
But it frequently happens that, in a Principal Clause, some 
word or phrase is qualified by as ; and then the Accessory 
Clause follows, introduced by as : for example. 
He is as merciful, as he is strong. 

The particle so is likewise used to qualify a word or phrase : 
thus, 

He is not so wise, as he seems. 

The words such and same are answered by as ; for example, 
She wrote such a letter, as might have been expected 

from her. 
They are the same, as ever they were. 

Hence some have contended that as, in these constructions, is 
a pronoun; but this has probably arisen from confounding 
relative adverbs with relative pronouns. A relative is not 
necessarily a pronoun. 

4. Degree. 

63. In sentences indicating Degree or Proportion, we must 
distinguish the relations of equality and inequality. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES* 41 

In the relation of equality, the co-ordinate forms are ex- 
pressed by 

as so. 

the the. 

The use of as , , , so corresponds with the usage in sen- 
tences relating to Manner, and need not be discussed further. 

The particle the, which must not be confounded with the 
definite article, has come down to us from the Anglo-Saxon 
th2/, the ablative case of the demonstrative pronoun, se, sea, 
thcet. 

The sentences introduced by the are pure co-ordinates, and 
are a remnant of the old language : for example, 

The more you learn, the wiser you will become. 

This means, * in proportion as you learn more, in that propor- 
tion you will become wiser.' 

In § 270 of his English Grammar^ Mr. Mason suspects the 
truth ; but in § 433, he gives the following exposition : — 

i ii fpi-jp more I learn, the more I wish to learn." Here the 
adverbial sentence, ''the more I learn^'' qualifies the demon- 
strative adverb the^ which in its turn qualifies the adverb more 
in the principal clause ; the word more in the adverbial clause, 
being itself qualified by the relative adverb the^ 

The explanation that the sentences are co-ordinate is simpler, 
and more in accordance with the older forms of the language. 

64. In the relation of inequality, accessory clauses are in- 
troduced by than. 

In older English, down to the time of Shakespeare, then 
was constantly used in these constructions, where we now em- 
ploy than. Both the words are derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
thonne or thcenne ; but in our modern language we restrict than 
to the purposes of comparison. 

In King Lear^ i. 4, the First Folio reads thus : 
Marke, nuncle ; 
Haue more then thou showest, 
Speak less then thou knowest, 
Lend less then thou owest, 
Eide more then thou goest, 
Learn more then thou trowest. 

The modern copies read than for then. 

Dr. Bosworth, in his Anglo-Saxon Dictionai^^ distin- 
guishes thonne (adverb) ' then,' from thonne (conjunction) 
' than ' ; but this distinction appears to be quite arbitrary. 



42 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

We shall compare a few instances of the use of tJionne in 
Anglo-Saxon, translating it by the word ^ then ' : 
fortham Faeder is mara thonne ic. 
fo7^-that Father is more then L 

* for my Father is greater than I.* 

John xiv. 28. 

thes ys maerra thonne thast tempi. 
this is more then the temple, 

* in this place is (one) greater than the temple.' 

Mattheiv xii. 6. 
thes ys mara thonne Salomon. 
this is more then Solomon. 

* a greater than Solomon is here.' — Id, xii. 42. 

. Se the lufa^ fseder o^(5e modor ma 
he that loveth father or mother more 
thonne me, nys he me wyrthe. 
then me^ ne-is he of -me worthy, 

* he that loveth father or mother more than me, is not 

worthy of me.' — Id, x, 37. 

The construction seems to have arisen from the order of 
succession : for example : 

this (one) is greater ; 
then Solomon [is great]. 

In like manner : 

he that loveth father or mother more ; then 
[he loveth] me. 

This appears to have been the origin of the construction ; 
but afterwards the use of then may have been extended to 
cases where this explanation is not obvious. 

65- Caution, In using ^ than,' it is very necessary to bear 
in mind the construction of both clauses, otherwise errors or 
confusion may ensue. 

For example, both these sentences are correct : 

1. She loves him more than /: 

2. She loves him more than me : 

but they bear very different significations. The first means, 
* she loves him more than I love him ; ' the second, ^ she 
loves him more than she loves me.' 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 43 

5. Cause and Effect 

66. Co-ordinate Sentences, denoting cause and effect, are 
introduced respectively by the words because and therefore. 
These are originally ^ by-cause ' and ^ there-for,' namely, 
* for that (cause).' The prepositions for and fore are con- 
stantly confounded. 

In the full form, then, we have. 

Cause, Because — it froze last night. 

Effect, Therefore — the pools are covered with ice. 

But, on this subject, a seeming inconsistency is observable. 
When * because ' is omitted, and we say, 
It froze last night ; therefore, the pools are covered with ice ; 

the grammarians maintain that the two clauses are still co- 
ordinate sentences, connected by the adverb ' therefore.' But 
when ' therefore ' is omitted, and we say. 
The pools are covered with ice, because it froze last night, 

we are told that * The pools are covered with ice ' is now a 
Principal Sentence ; and that the words ^ it froze last night,' 
constitute a Subordinate Sentence, attached by the covjunG- 
tioii ' because.' 

At first sight, the distinction is not obvious, nor is the dif- 
ference between adverb and conjunction very clear. Still the 
distinction may exist, and the following point deserves notice : 

In the sentence ' It froze last night ; therefore the pools are 
covered with ice,' we may insert the conjunction and between 
the clauses ; thus, 

It froze last night, and therefore the pools are covered 
with ice. 

Now here we have two co-ordinate sentences coupled by the 
conjunction and. 

But in the sentence, * The pools are covered with ice, be- 
cause it froze last night,' the two clauses are so intimately 
bound up together, that we cannot insert a conjunction be- 
tween them. If the two clauses are not co-ordinates, we must 
expound one as the Principal, and the other as the Accessory 
Clause. 

At all events, it is objectionable to discuss these forms in 
different parts of the grammar ; the one under the head of Co- 
ordinate Sentences, the other under the head of Principal and 
Accessory. It is very important that the pupil should acquire 
precise notions upon the relation of Cause and Effect. For this 



44 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

purpose, the whole subject should be brought under one view. 
Younger pupils should remember, that we may first assign the 
cause, and then state the effect ; or we may first state the effect, 
and then assign the cause. For example, we may say, 

The season was dry, therefore the crops failed, 
or J The crops failed, because the season was dry. 
Again, The string is pulled too tight, therefore it breaks, 
or, The string breaks, because it is pulled too tight. 

6. Reason and Conclusion, 

67. Sentences which express reason and conclusion are 
called illative^ that is, ^ inferential,^ because they are used in 
drawing ' inferences.' 

It is often a source of perplexity that the * illative conjunc- 
tions ' because and therefore are employed to denote reason and 
conclusion, as well as cause and effect. 

1. Cause and Effect : 

The ground is rich, and therefore the trees flourish, 
or, 

The trees flourish, because the ground is rich. 

2. Reason and Conclusion : 

The trees are flourishing, and therefore the ground is rich, 

The ground is rich, because the trees are flourishing. 

See Whately, Logic, I. 2. 
The difficulty vanishes, if, in stating the Reason and Conclu- 
sion, we substitute ^ by-reason ' for because, and ' thereby (we 
know that) ' for therefore. 

We shall state the sentences as co-ordinates. 

1. Cause and Effect : 

Because .... the ground is rich. 
Therefore . . . the trees flourish. 

2. Reason and Conclusion : 

By-reason . . . the trees are flourishing, 
Thereby (we know that) . . . the ground is rich. 
Some writers have used the phrase * by reason ' instead of 
* because,' where a reason or motive is signified. Thus we 
read of Sir Eoger de Coverley : 

It is said, he keeps himself a bachelor, by reason 
he was crossed in love by a perverse beautiful widow 
of the next county to him. Spectator, No. 2. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 45 

However, this form is not usual ; and no substitute lias been 
provided in corresponding cases for * therefore.' 

In ordinary argument it is very common to state the con- 
clusion first, and then to assign the reason or reasons : thus, 
Emulation is useful, because it promotes diligence. 
Emulation is injurious, because it excites envy. 
Instead of because^ other particles are often used to introduce 
the reason : for^ as, since, or the more formal whereas, 

7. Action (or State) and Result, 

68. A sentence expressing Action and Eesult diiFers from 
one denoting Cause and Effect, just as a mere narrative differs 
from an argumentative statement. 

The simplest form exhibits two co-ordinate sentences : as, 
He ran fast, and he was out of breath. 
If we say. 

He ran fast, and so he was out of breath, 

the word so occupies a place analogous to therefore in a formal 
argument. But, in our view, the sentences are still co- 
ordinate. 

If, however, we proceed a step further, and say, 
He ran so fast, that he was out of breath, 

we must consider the first clause as a Principal, and the second 
as an Accessory Clause. 

In analysing such a sentence, the followers of Becker would 
regard so as an * adverb ' qualifying the adverb * fast ; * and 
' that he was out of breath,' as an adverb-clause modifying 
the adverb so. 

The following method, however, may be worthy of con- 
sideration :— 

He ran . . . fast, . . Principal Clause, 
so . . . that .... Adverbial {or Conjunctional) 

phrase introducing the 
Accessory Clause. 
he was out of breath, . Accessory Clause. 

8. Purpose and End. 

69. The sentences denoting this relation had passed in 
Anglo- Saxon into the advanced stage; and the Accessory 
Clause was introduced by thcet alone : as. 



46 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

^34 thing ic eow sasde, thset ge habbon sibbe on me. 
these things I to-you said^ that ye may-have peace in me, 

John xvi. 33. 

The Yulgate reads, ^ Hasc locutus sum vobis, ut in me pacem 
habeatis.' The Anglo-Saxon made no distinction between the 
past tense ^ said ' and the present-perfect * have said.' But 
our English version is wrong : ' These things I have spoken 
unto you, that in me ye might have peace.' We may read 
*• I spoke . . . that ye might,' or ^ I have spoken . . . that ye 
may ; ' but we must not mix the two constructions. 

Instead of an Accessory Clause introduced by that^ w^e may 
have a gerund with to : thus, for 

He labours, that he may become rich : 
He studies, that he may improve : 

we may say 

He labours to become rich : 
He studies to improve : 

where to denotes ' in order to,' ' for the purpose to ; ' and 
therefore * to become,' * to improve,' are not simple infinitives, 
but what we call ^ the gerund with to,^ The Latin scholar 
will see at once, that ^ to become,' * to improve,' could not be 
rendered in Latin by infinitives. 

Where the subordinate sentence involves a negative, we 
often find lest as equivalent to that . . . not : as, 

He labours, lest he should be dependent, 
He labours, that he may not be dependent. 

9. Condition and Consequence. 

70. Grammarians have dwelt at considerable length on this 
relation ; and some of the terms which they employ present 
difficulty to the learner. 

Mr. Mason says, {English Grammar ^ § 440,) *In adverbial 
clauses of condition, the principal sentence is called the con- 
sequent clause {i.e. the clause which expresses the consequence) ; 
the subordinate sentence is called the hypothetical clause {i, e. 
the clause which expresses the hypothesis, supposition or con' 
cession).' 

The Greek hypothesis is equivalent to the Latin suppositio, 
and literally means the ' groundwork ' or * foundation,' hence 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 47 

' that \vliicli is laid down as the basis of an argument.' By 
the Greek grammarians, the hypothetical (or supposhig) clause 
is termed the protasis {i. e. the * putting forward'); while the 
consequent clause is named the apodosis, (J. e. the ' paying 
back,' the ^ rejoinder '). 

With younger pupils, I have found it simpler to call these 
clauses respectively the * if-clause,' and the * then-clause ; ' 
for although, in modern English, then is not very often found 
introducing the consequent clause, it sometimes held such a 
position in the older stages of the language. 

We have then the following comparison of terms : 

{f-clause tJie?i'cl3LXise, 

hypothetical clause .... consequent clause, 
protasis apodosis. 

By some writers, the hypothetical clause is termed the con- 
ditional clause. 

Although the general tendency of philological opinion is 

now rather against Home Tooke's derivation of ' if,' I still 

think the word is derived from gify ^give,' the imperative 

mood of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan. In many instances, we 

find two co-ordinate sentences, with an imperative mood in 

each clause ; and this may have been the original form : as, 

Gyf thu hyt eart, hat me cuman to the. 

Give thou it art, bid me come to thee. 

' If it be thou, bid me come to thee.' 

Matthew xiv. 28. 

Here g^/f means ^ give that,' ' grant that,' or ^ suppose that.' 
Sometimes we find a question in the second clause : as, 
Gyf Dauid hyne Dryhten clepaS, hu ys he hys sunu? 
Give David Mm Lord calleth, how is he his son ? 

' If David call him Lord, how is he his son? ' 

Matthew xxii. 45. 

71. At other times, we find an indicative in the second 
clause, introduced by the particle thonne ' then : ' as, 

Gif ge forgyfaS mannum heora synna, thonne forgyf^ 
Give ye forgive to-men their sins, then forgiveth 
eower se heofenlica Feeder eow eowre gyltas. 
your the heavenly Father to-you your guilts, 

*• If ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father 
wiU also forgive you.' — Matthew vi. 14. 



48 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

We find similar constructions in early English, as, 
Forgiff me, Virgill, gif I thee offend. 

Douglas, Preface^ p. 11. 
Gif luf be verteu, than it is leful thing : 
Gif it be vice, it is your undoing, 
that is, 

If love be virtue, then it is lawful thing : 
If it be vice, it is your undoing. 

Id, FroL to Atk loTce, 
If is often followed by that : as, 

Ne I wol non reherse, if that I may. 

Chaucer, Man of Lawes Prologue. 
She wolde weepe, yf that she saw a mous. 

Id, Prologue to Canterbury Tales, 

72. The form if , , , then may throw ^me light upon the 
reading or pointing of Macbeth iii. 4. llorne Tooke quotes 
from the First Folio : 

Approach thou like the rugged Russian beare, 
The arm'd rhinoceros, or th' Hirean tiger, 
Take any shape but that, and my firme nerues 
Shall neuer tremble. Or be aliue againe 
And dare me to tjie desart with thy sworde, 
If trembling I Inhabit then, protest mee 
The baby of a girle. 

He then remarks : * Pope here changed Inhabit to Inhibit, Upon 
this correction Steevens builds another, and changes then to thee* 
Both which insipid corrections Malone, with his usual judgment, inserts 
in his text. And there it stands, 

* '' If trembling I inhibit thee." 

* But for these tasteless commentators, one can hardly suppose that 
any reader of Shakspeare could have found a difficulty ; the original 
text is so plain, easy and clear, and so much in the author's accustomed 
manner. 

* " Dare me to the desart with thy sworde," 

* *' If I inhabit then " — i.e. If then I do not meet thee there ; if trem- 
bling I stay at homf^, or within doors, or under any roof, or within 
any habitation : If when you call me to the desart, I then House me, 
or through fear, hide myself from thee in any dwelling : 

* " If trembling I do House me then — Protest me, &c." * 

Diversions of Purley^ ii. 54. 

The Second, Third, and Fourth Folios read : — 
If trembling I inhabit, then, &c. 
And although the reading of the First Folio may be more energetic, 
the pointing of the other folios is more in accordance with grammatical 
form; if— then, i.e., ^ If trembling I keep the .house (or *' keep at 
home "), then protest me the baby of a girl.* 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 49 

73. It may be useful to point out the relation of affirmative 
and negative clauses in sentences of this kmd : as, 

1. If . . . . then {affirmative- a ffimiative), 

2. If not . . then not {negative-negative). 

3. If . . . . then not (affirmative-negative). 

4. If not . . then (negative-affirmative). 

As for example : 

1 . If he comes, (then) I will go. 

2. If he does not come, (then) I will not go. 

3. If he writes, (then) I will not go. 

4. If he does not write, (then) I will go. 

As before remarked, then is generally omitted. And ob- 
serve, that if . , , not may be represented by unless^ or by 
any word, or words, to the same effect : as, except ^ save that. 
Thus, instead of sentences marked 2 and 4, we might say, 
2. Unless he comes, I will not go. 
4. Unless he writes, I will go. 

So, 

Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved. 

Acts xxvii. 31. 

74* In these sentences involving condition and consequence, 
the use of the subjunctive mood demands particular attention. 
Theories derived from the doctrine of the Latin subjunctive 
have affected English composition ; and in many cases, where 
the English subjunctive is used, it is possible that the employ- 
ment of the mood has been introduced by classical scholars, 
who laboured under a false impression that the Latin required 
a subjunctive. Professor Key has shown, {Latin Grammar^ 
§ 1153,) that in suppositions, which may be the fact or not, so 
far as the speaker professes to know, conditional sentences have 
nearly always the indicative in Latin in both clauses, and not 
the subjunctive. 

75. Dr. Webster, in the Introduction to his English Die- 
tionary, states his opinion, that the subjunctive form of the verb 
if he be, if he have, if he go, if he say, if thou ivrite, whether thou 
see, though he fall, which was generally used by the writers 
of the sixteenth century, was in a great measure discarded 
before the time of Addison. 

Whether this change resulted from the prevalence of col- 
loquial usage over grammar rules, or because discerning men 
perceived the impropriety and inconsistency of the language of 
books, Dr. Webster does not pretend to determine. But he 



50 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

observes that Locke, Watts, Addison, Pope, and other authors 
who adorned the close of the seventeenth, and the beginning of 
the eighteenth century, generally used the indicative mood to 
express condition, uncertainty, and hypothesis in the present 
and past tenses. 

He then quotes the following examples :— 

If principles are innate. — Locke. 

If any person Ifiath never examined this notion. — Id, 

Whether that substance thinks or no. — Id, 

If the soul doth think in sleep. — Id, 

If the reader has a mind to see a father of the same 

stamp. — Addison. 
If exercise throws off all superfluities. — Id. 
If America is not to be conquered. — Lord Chatham. 
If we are to be satisfied with assertions. — Fox, 
If it gives blind confidence. — Id. 
If my bodily strength is equal to the task. — Pitt. 
A negro, if he works for himself, and not for a master, will 

do double the work. — Id. 
If he finds his collection too small. — Johnson. 
Whether it leads to truth. — Id. 
If he warns others against his own failings. — Id, 

76. This, according to Dr. Webster, is generally the language 
of Johnson. Except the substantive verb [be], there is in 
his Rambler but a single instance of the subjunctive form 
in conditional sentences. In all ether cases, the use of the 
indicative is uniform. 

But neither Johnson, nor other authors, are consistent in the 
use of moods ; thus Johnson writes : — 

If it is to be discovered only by experiment. 
If other indications are to be found. 
But in the next sentence, — 

If to miscarry in an attempt he a proof of having mis- 
taken the direction of genius. 

The following expressions occur in Pope's Preface to 
Homer's Iliad, in the compass of thirteen lines :— - 
If he has given a regular catalogue of an army. 
If he has funeral games for Patroclus. 
If Ulysses visit the shades. 
If he he detained fifom his retuiii. 
If Achilles he absent. 
If he gives his hero a suit of celestial armour. 



. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 51 

The verb he is often used in the subjunctive form by writers 
who never use that form in any other verb. Dr. Webster 
thinks the reason is, that be is primarily the indicative as well 
as the subjunctive mood of that verb. But as the form be 
is, in modern usage, restricted to the subjunctive, and as this 
is the only verb exhibiting a marked difference of form, 
writers may have been tempted to avail themselves of this 
difference. Our grammar presents so few varieties, that when 
we have one we are apt to use it too freely. As Falstaff 
says, ^it was always yet the trick of our English nation, if 
they have a good thing to make it too common.' — 27id Hen, IV. 
i. 2.) 

77. The preceding remarks and quotations refer to the 
present and past tenses. Dr. Webster, in criticising Dr. Lowth, 
sets up a distinction, which appears to me untenable. 

Dr. Lowth remarks {English Grammar^ p. 61, note) that 
the forms of the subjunctive mood carry with them something 
of a future sense. Dr. Webster says this is true; but he 
charges Dr. Lowth with overlooking the distinction between 
' an event of uncertain existence in present time and a future 
contingent event.' For example : — 

Present : K the mail that has arrived contains a letter for 
me, I shall soon receive it. 

Future : If the mail arriving to-morrow contain a letter for 
me, I shall be happy to receive it. 

78. This distinction is fanciful ; nor is it supported by good 
usage. Dr. Webster appeals to the Anglo-Saxon laws, many 
of which begin with ^zy* followed by a subjunctive. But in 
other laws an indicative follows. The usage is not uniform, 
any more than among ourselves. We shall see that the 
Anglo-Saxon had no distinct form for the future, even in the 
indicative ; or rather, that one form did double duty for the 
present, and for the future. Even in modern English we 
constantly say, ^1 go to London to-morrow,' ' They come to 
see us next week.' No doubt, the present subjunctive has 
sometimes a future force ; but so, sometimes, has the present 
indicative. And therefore Dr. Webster appears to be in error, 
when he insists so strongly upon the future sense of the pre- 
sent subjunctive. In the passage, * If his son ash bread, will 
he give him a stone ? ' he says the words are unintelligible, 
unless we take ask in the sense of shall ask. 

I believe that to say ^ If his son shall ask ' is not so idiomatic as 
' If his son asks.^ In Cork people constantly say, ^ If it vnll be^ 

D 2 



52 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

for ^ if it is ' ; and it is possible that this usage may have crept 
in from the Gaelic idiom. The following sentence appeared 
in a Cork newspaper : — 

* It appears from the Lord Lieutenant's answer to the peti- 
tion in favour of Burke, that not only will he be execiited, but 
in all probability every man who will be found guilty of high 
treason.' 

79. Therefore, with regard to those suppositions which may 
or may not be the actual fact, we have authority, in English, 
for using the indicative in both clauses. 

With reference to those conditional sentences which put an 
imaginary case, the non-existence of which is implied in the 
very terms, we must distinguish between present time and 
past time. 

In sentences relating to time present, we have the past- 
imperfect subjunctive in the //-clause : as, 
If he were here, he would tell us. 
If he were present, I would speak to him. 

In sentences relating to past time we have the auxiliary had 
in the if-clause : as. 

If he had confessed his fault, I should have forgiven him. 
In older English we find had in both clauses : as, 

I had fainted, unless I had believed. — Psalm xxvii. 13. 

80. Observe that, except in the sec6nd person singular, we 
cannot distinguish, in English, betweea the past perfect indi- 
cative had fainted, and the past perfect subjunctive had fainted. 
The Germans distinguish hatte (indicative) and hdtte (subjunc- 
tive). For instance, the sentence just quoted might be ren- 
dered, in German, 

Ich hatte verzweifelt, wenn ich nicht geglaubt hatte. 

81. In Anglo-Saxon, we sometimes find the past imperfect 
subjunctive in such cases: for instance, our version reads, 

If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. — John 
xi. 21, 32. 

but the Anglo-Saxon reads, 

Gif thu waere her, naere min brothor dead. 
If thou wert here, ne-were my brother dead. 

10. Concession and Declaration, 

82. In the older stages of the language, there are many ex- 
amples of co-ordinate forms used to express this relation. The 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 53 

co-ordinate clauses are introduced respectively by though . . . 
yet, or although ... yet. If there is occasion to distinguish 
them, they may be termed the ^ though- clsLUsej^ and the * 't/et- 
clause.' 

Sometimes we find the indicative m the though-claM&ej and 
at other times the subjunctive : as, 
Indicative : 

Though ye have lien among the pots, yet shall ye be as 
the wings of a dove covered with silver. — Psalm 
Ixviii. 13, 
Although affliction cometh iiot forth of the dust . . . yet 

man is born unto trouble. — Job v. 6, 7. 
Althougb thou say est thou shalt not see him, yet judg- 
ment is before him. — Id. xxxv. 14:. 
Subjunctive : 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — Job xiii. 15. 
Though the root thereof wax old in the eartli . . . yet 

through the scent of water it will bud. — Id. xiv. 8, 9. 
Though his excellency mount up to the heavens, yet he 
shall perish for ever. — Id, xx. 6, 7. 

83. In the following passages the form does not help us to 
determine whether the verbs are in the indicative or the sub- 
junctive : 

Though I speak, my grief is not asswaged. — Job xvi. 6. 
Though after my skin worms destroy this body, yet in my 
flesh shall I see God. — Id. xix. 26. 

Sometimes we have the future indicative in the though- 
clause : as, 

Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit 
be in the vines; the labour of the olive shall fail, and 
the fields shall yield no meat ; the flock shall be cut off 
from the fold, and there shall be no herd in the stalls ; 
yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of 
my salvation. — Habahkuk iii. 17, 18. 

84. When an imaginary case is put, the non-existence of 
which is imphed, we find the past-imperfect subjunctive in 
the though-oXdiM^Q', as. 

Whom, though I were righteous, yet would I not 

answer. Job viii. 15. 

Though I were perfect, yet would I not know my soul. 

Id. viii. 21. 



54 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

When the yet-clsin&e becomes a Principal Clause, the par- 
ticle yet is omitted, and the though~clsiU.&e becomes accessory ; 
as, 

Though I speak, my grief is not asswaged. — Job xvi. 6. 
Yain man would be wise, though man be born like 
a wild ass's colt. Id. xi. 12. 

III. Compound Sentences comprising Subordinate Clauses. 

85. That which we term the Subordinate Clause forms an 
integral part of the Compound Sentence. 

The Subordinate Clause may be a Subject or an Object, in 
the whole Compound Sentence of which it forms a part ; or it 
may take the place of an Adjective. 

When the Subordinate Clause is a Subject or an Object, it 
is termed a Noun-clause. 

Wfeen the Subordinate Clause stands in the place of an 
Adjective, it is termed an adjective-clause. 

An attempt is sometimes made to divide sentences of this 
kind into two parts: (1) Principal Clause, (2) Subordinate 
Clause. For instance, in the sentence, ' I saw that something 
was wrong,' Professor Bain {English Grammar, p. 157) 
makes the following division : — 

I saw ..... Principal Clause. 
that something was wrong . Subordinate Clause, 

86. But the clause * that something was wrong ' is the 
object of the verb ' saw.' The clause is comprised within 
the whole Compound Sentence, like a wheel within a wheel. 
In fact, the entire sentence, ' I saw that something was 
wrong,' occupies the position of a Principal Sentence, and the 
Subordinate clause * that something was wrong ' forms part of 
the whole. 

In dealing with Correlative Sentences, it was easy to distinguish two 
separate clauses, which we termed the Principal Clause, and the Acces- 
sory Clause. But here we recognise no Principal Clause. We do not 
object to call the whole Compound Sentence a Principal Sentence ; with 
the understanding, that it comprises, or involves within itself, one or 
more Subordinate Clauses, whether they be Noun-clauses or Adjective- 
clauses. 

1. The Noun-clause, 

87. The Noun-clause occupies the place, and follows the 
construction of a noun, in the whole compoimd sentence, of 
which it forms a part. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 55 

It may therefore be used : — 

1. As a subject-nominative : 
That he said so is certain. 

2. As a predicate-nominative : 

The result was that they came forward, 

3. As an objective : 

His friends expect that he will succeed, 

4. As a noun in apposition : 

The idea that money alone is wealthy has been the 
cause of great mistakes. 

Sentences of this kind may be easily deduced from two 
Co-ordinates : 

That he said so is certain. 
First Co-ordinate : He said so. 
Second Co-ordinate : That is certain. 
Hence, — . 

That [he said so] is certain. 
So,— 

His friends expect that he will succeed. 
First Co-ordinate : He will succeed. 
Second Co-ordinate : His friends expect that. 
His friends expect that [he will succeed.] 
See Diversions of Purley^ i. 83 — 97. 

88. There are two kinds of Noun-clauses : 

1. Those that contain a direct statement. 

2. Those that involve an indirect question. 

1. Those Noun-clauses which contain a direct statement, 
are generally introduced by the word tJiat^ commonly called a 
conjunction, though originally it is a demonstrative pronoun. 
For example, if my friend intends to visit me, and I am 
aware of the fact, I say, 

I know that he will come, 

where that implie the fact,' * the following truth,' namely, 
'his intended coming.' Similarly, 'I know that he is 
returned ' may be resolved into two sentences, '• He is 
returned,' ' I know that fact.' See Key, Latin Grammar^ 
§ 847, note. 

And so completely is that regarded as introductory of the 



56 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

following sentence, that we often omit the conjunction, and 
say, ' I know he will come.' 

In Greek and Latin it is customary to give these sentences 
another turn, by which the subject-nominative of the Subor- 
dinate clause is made the subject-accusative, and the verb is 
thrown into the infinitive mood. 

He will come Ille veniet. 

I know that he will come . . Scio ilium venturum esse, 

89. 2. Noun-clauses involving an indirect question. These 
are introduced by relative pronouns, or by relative adverbs 
(otherwise termed * conjunctive adverbs'), as when^ where, 
how J and some others. For example : — 

I know who you are, 
I understand what you want, 
I know when he ivill come, 
I see how he did it. 

2. 2'he Adjective-clause, 

90. The Adjective-clause follows the construction of an 
adjective, and may qualify any noun or pronoun in the Com- 
pound Sentence. Hence it may be attached to the subject- 
nominative, to an objective, or to any substantive which 
occurs in phrases qualifying the predicate-nominative, or the 
predicate-verb. 

1. With the subject-nominative : 

The man, vjho loves his country, will never speak ill of her 

to strangers. 
He is thrice armed, that hath his quarrel just. 
The house, that Jack built, is wonderful. 
The people, with whom you associate, are agreeable. 
Hard was the hand that gave the blow. 
Red were those lips that bled, 

91. 2. With the predicate-nominative : 

This man was the friend who promised to help us. 
This is the letter which he wrote. 
Spring is the time when blossoms come, 
Ireland is the country where I dicell. 

3. With an objective : 
They want a leader that hnoivs the way. 
He lost all the money which he had saved, 
I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 5i 

4. With a noun or pronoun in qualifying phi-ases : 
She came at the moment luhen all icas over. 
They lived on the estate that their father left. 
He went with those who planned the expedition. 

Ohs. — Sentences of this kind may be deduced from the Co- 
ordinate form. Thus, ' The house that Jack built is wonderful.' 
Fii'st Co-ordinate : That house is wonderful. 
Second Co-ordinate : That house Jack built. 
Again, — ^ Hard was the hand that gave the blow.' 
First Co-ordinate : Hard was that hand. 
Second Co-ordinate : That hand gave the blow. 

The Adjective- clause is introduced by the relative pronouns 
who^ which^ that, or by the relative adverbs wheiiy where^ 
whither, how, &c. 

92. Professor Bain makes a distinction in the nse of the relatiyes 
* that,' * who,' and * which.' To some this distinction may seem novel ; 
but he contends that it is the revival of an old and idiomatic usage. 
According to his view {English Grammar, Preface, p. iv.) the distinc- 
tion between 'that' on the one hand and 'who' and 'which' on the 
other, was clearly perceived by our idiomatic writers up to the begin- 
ning of the last century ; but owing to an unfortunate misapprehension 
as to the English idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of a 
clause, the relative ' that ' is now very little employed in book compo- 
sition, ' who ' and ' which ' being made to serve in its stead. 

Hence, he says {English Gramniar, p. 159), ' The Adjective Clause, 
being by its nature restrictive, should be introduced by the restricting 
relative "that" or its equivalents, rather than by "who" or "which" 
the relatives more properly adapted for co-ordination. " The man that 
is wise" (meaning the same as " the wise man") is preferable to "the 
man who is wise." 

'This construction {Grammar,-^, 23) avoids ambiguities that often 
attend the indiscriminate use of "who" and "which" for co-ordinate 
and for restrictive clauses. Thus when we say, 

his conduct surprised his English friend% who had not 
known him long, 
we may mean, either 

(1) that his English friends generally were surprised (the 
relative being in that case co-ordinating) ; 
or, (2) that only a portion of them — namely, the particular por- 
tion that had not known him long — were surprised. 

* In this last case the relative is meant to define or explain the ante- 
cedent, and the doubt would be removed by writing thus — 

his English friends that had not known him long.* 

93. This suggestion is worth considering, and may advan- 
tageously be applied in cases where ambiguity is likely to 

d3 



58 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

arise from the employment of ^ who ' or * which/ But the 
custom of the language has so far sanctioned the indiscriminate 
use of the pronouns, that an attempt to revive the distinction 
will hardly find general acceptance. 

94. The relative is sometimes omitted in English, but only 
in constructions where, if expressed, it would stand in the ob- 
jective case : as. 

The man I met was an old friend, 
that is, 

The man whom (or thai) I met was an old friend. 

But we must be careful to avoid ambiguity ; and if the omis- 
sion of the relative might possibly throw doubt upon the 
meaning of the sentence, we ought to insert it. Thus, 

The man I saw was your friend, 
might mean, either 

The man, whom I saw, was your friend, 
or. 

The man, as I saw (i. e., as I observed), was your friend. 

Caution, 

95. Care must be taken not to confound the noun-clause 
with an adjective-clause. They may both be introduced by 
the same connective : 

I know when we ought to start .... Noun-clause. 

I know the time when we ought to start . Adjective-clause. 

I know where it is Noun-clause. 

I know the place where it is .... Adjective-clause, 

The test is this. When the clause is used to qualify a noun, 
it is an adjective-clause. But when the whole clause stands 
in the place of a subject or an object, it is a noun-clause. 



CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 59 

Chapter IY. 

CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 

96. We have said that any sentence contamirg more than 
one subject-nominative, or more than one predicate-verb, is 
called a Compomid Sentence. 

But considerable difficulties arise where two or more sub- 
ject-nominatives have only one predicate- verb, or where one 
subject-nominative has two or more predicate-verbs. . 

Take for example sentences of the copulative class : — 

1. Where two subject-nominatives have one predicate- 

verb : as, 

Ceesar and Pompey came to Eome, 

2. Where one subject-nominative has two predicate- 

verbs : as, 

Csesar conquered the Gauls, and invaded Britain. 
The question is, how we must deal with examples of this kind. 
But this question, which has been much perplexed, is connected 
with another enquiry, namely, whether conjunctions can be 
said to couple words as well as sentences ; or whether we ought 
to hold that conjunctions can couple sentences only, and not 
individual words. 

97. Those grammarians who maintain that conjunctions 
couple sentences only, explain all these cases upon one prin- 
ciple — that of contraction. They say, for example, that ^ Caesar 
and Pompey came to Rome' is a contraction for two simple 
sentences, * Csesar came to Rome,' and ' Pompey came to 
Rome.' Similarly, * Csesar conquered the Gauls, and invaded 
Britain ' will be a contraction of the two simple sentences, 
* Caesar conquered the Gauls,' and * Caesar invaded Britain.' 

But, on the other hand, it is objected that the principle will 
not always hold good. For, if we examine the sentence ^ John 
and Jane are a handsome couple,' we cannot say that ^ John is 
a couple,' and ^ Jane is a couple.' Or, if we take * one and 
one make two,' we cannot explain it as contracted from ' one 
makes two,' and ^ one makes two.' 

98. Those who are moved by this objection have recourse 
to another explanation. They say, that ^ Caesar and Pompey 
came to Rome ' is a simple sentence with a compound subject^ 
the conjunction and coupling the words ^ Caesar' and '• Pompey,' 
as though it were ^ [Caesar and Pompey] came to Rome.' 



60 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

They wish to know w^hj conjunctions may not couple indivi- 
dual words. The answer is, that if conjunctions couple words, 
grammarians find a difficulty in discriminating between con- 
junctions and prepositions. But this is met by the rejoinder, 
that prepositions can govern the cases of nouns, whereas con- 
junctions cannot. This part of the subject we shall consider 
hereafter; see §§ 441-445. 

99- Similar diversity is found in explaining sentences of 
the alternative class. We are told, for instance, that, ' Neither 
Cassar nor Pompey came to Eome,' is a contracted compound 
sentence, made up of two simple sentences, * Neither Caesar 
came to Eome,' ' nor Pompey came to Eome.' 

But ^ All men are black or white,' cannot be contracted 
from *all men are black,' or * all men are white;' for the 
meaning is ' all men are [either black or white].' 

100. It may be, that perplexity has arisen from the confusion 
of form and meaning which sometimes enters into grammatical 
investigations. Similar forms are sometimes employed in cases 
where the meaning is at variance with the form. It does not 
follow, because the application of the principle v/ill not suit the 
meaning in all instances, that therefore the principle itself did 
not originate from the method of contraction. 

101- At the same time we must guard against that love of 
uniformity w^hich so often leads grammarians astray. We 
should beware of hastily laying down general rules ; and we 
should rather examine the cases separately as they arise. In 
instances where two or more subject-nominatives are answered 
by one predicate-verb, we may distinguish the cases, (1) where 
the predicate is true of the subjects severally; (2) where the 
predicate is true of the subjects, not severally, but jointly. 

For example, in the sentence ' Cassar and Pompey came 
to Eome,' it is true that * Csesar came to Eome,' and that 
' Pompey came to Eome.' But in ' John and Jane are a 
handsome couple,' the predicate is not true of ^ John and Jane' 
severally. Here we must analyse thus : — 

John and Jane . Two subject- nominatives, united b} 
the conjunction ^ and.' 

are Predicate -verb. 

a Article, qualifying the predicate- 
nominative, ' couple.' 

handsome . . . Adjective, qualifying the predicate- 
nominative, * couple.' 

coupls .... Predicate -nominative. 



CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 61 

And if, in such a case, we are obliged to adopt this method 
of analysis, the same method must be at least optional in 
other cases. For example : — 

Cagsar and Pompey came to Eome. 
Caesar and Pompey . Two subject- nominatives, coupled 
by the conjunction ^ and.' 

came Predicate- verb. 

to Rome .... Adverbial phrase, qualifying the 
predicate- verb, ' came.' 

102. And similarly, where one subject-nominative has two 
predicate-verbs ; as 

Ciesar conquered the Gauls and invaded Britain. 

Csesar . . . Subject-nominative. 

conquered . First predicate-verb. 

the .... Article, qualifying the objective, ^ Gauls.' 

Gauls . . . Objective, dependent on the first predi- 
cate-verb, ^ conquered.' 

and . . . Conjunction, coupling the two predicate- 
verbs, ^ conquered ' and ' invaded.' 

invaded . . Second predicate-verb. 

Britain . . Objective, dependent upon the second 
predicate-verb, ^ invaded.' 

Elliptical Sentences. 

103. Although grammarians have abused the privilege of 

* understanding ' and ^ supplying ' words at pleasure, still we 
must admit that words are sometimes not found where we 
expect to see them, or where, according to grammatical 
theory, such words might find place. Nay, further, words 
are omitted in one language, which must be expressed in 
another. For example, we omit the relative pronoun in in- 
stances where the omission would be considered barbarous in 
Latin ; as, ^ This is the man I saw,' meaning ^ whom I saw.' 

We omit the relative in constructions where, if expressed, 
it would stand in the objective case. The Welsh, however, 
carry this much further ; as 

Gwelais y dyn oedd yn-canu, 
/ saw the man was singing, 

for * I saw the man who was singing.' Thus, a Welshman, 
who has an imperfect acquaintance with English, will say, 

* This is the man Avas driving the horse,' for * who was driving 
the horse.' 



62 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

104. Let us take these examples : — 

This is the book I gave you. 
This is the house I hve in. 
This is the way I came. 
He left the day I arrived. 

In one stage of the English language, the word that would 
have been employed in these sentences : 

This is the book that I gave you. 
This is the house that I live in. 
This is the way that I came. 
He left the day that I arrived. 

Here that has the force of a relative pronoun. In more 
modern English, there is a tendency to " substitute who^ which, 
for that ; and as a notion has prevailed that sentences should 
not end with a preposition, many writers say * in which I live,' 
rather than ' which I live in.' Accordingly these sentences 
might stand, - >^ 

This is the book which I gave you. 

This is the house in which I live. 

This is the way by which I came. 

He left the day on which I arrived, 

105. According to our notions of grammatical construction, 
founded in a great measure upon the grammar of the Latin 
language, we cannot analyse sentences of this kind without 
supplying some word to stand in the place of a relative pro- 
noun ; as * This is the book that I gave you.' 

This .... Subject-nominative. 

is Predicate-verb. 

the .... Article, qualifying the predicate- 
nominative, ' book.' 

book .... Predicate-nominative. 

that I gave you Adjective-clause, qualifying the predi- 
cate-nominative, ^ book.' 

If I might offer a conjecture, the sentence *This is the book 
I gave you,' represents the ancient British idiom, answering 
to the modern Welsh idiom ; for I believe that the traces of 
the old British are much more numerous in our language than 
is generally surmised. The sentence 'This is the book that 
I gave you,' corresponds to the Anglo-Saxon form ; and 'This 
is the book which I gave you,' is the modern English, founded 
upon imitation of the Latin construction. 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



Chapter V. 

NOUNS. 

NOMINATIVE. 

Relations of Subject and Predicate. 

The Nominative and The Verb, 

106. * The Verb agrees with its Nominative case in number 
and person,' said the old rule. 

But as there may be many verbs and many nominatives in 
a sentence, the rule was somewhat indefinite, and was learned 
rather by practical application, than from any precision in the 
terms employed. 

' The nominative to the verb ' meant the swJJec^-nominative ; 
and * the nominative after the verb * meant the predicate- 
nominative. 

By the Verb was understood the predicate-VGrh, 
The form of analysis, which we propose for simple sen- 
tences, is 

1. Time flies. 

Time Subject-nominative* 

flies Predicate-verb, 

2. Mirth is good. 

Mirth Subject-nominative, 

is Predicate-verb. 

good Predicate-nominative. 

107. We shall first consider the relations of the subject- 
nominative and the predicate-nominative. Then we shall 
proceed to the relations of the subject-nominative and the 
predicate-verb. 



64 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

JRelations of the Suhject-nominative and the Predicate' 
nominative. 

As the terms themselves imply, the subject-nominative and 
the predicate-nominative agree in case ; but with regard to 
gender and number, the agreement depends upon several con- 
siderations. 

If the predicate-nominative be an adjective^ it agrees with 
the subject-nominative in gender and number, as well as in 
case. And though, in English, adjectives do not vary their 
ending to show this agreement, the difference must be ex- 
pressed in translating from English into Latin or any other 
language, where such variations are necessary. For example, 

The boy is good Puer est hon-us. 

The girl is good Puella est bon-a. 

The boys are good .... Pueri sunt bon-e. 

The girls are good .... Puellae sunt hon-ce, 

108. But if the predicate-nominative be a noun, there may 
be diversity of gender and number. If, indeed, a noun 
changes its form to denote difference of gender, we generally 
make the change ; we say, for example, 

John Kemble was an actor. 
Mrs. Siddons was an actress. 

However, we do not always follow the rule exactly. For 
though, in strictness, we ought to say ^ Sims Eeeves is a 
singer' and ^ Jenny Lind is a songstress;' still, in ordinary 
conversation, we commonly call Jenny Lind a ' singer.' And 
yet, during the height of her popularity, when admiring 
critics rose into enthusiasm, she was sometimes styled * this 
gifted songstress/ ^ this divine songstress.' 

109. Greater latitude is allowed, with regard to number. 
We say. 

Dutiful children are great blessings. 



or, 



or, 



Dutiful children are a great blessing. 
The fine arts are sources of delight, 



The fine arts are a source of delight. 

But when the number is not the same on both sides, a 
difiSculty sometimes arises in the use of the verb, which 
might agree with either, but cannot possibly agree with 
both. 



NOUNS. 65 

Very oflen the verb agrees Tvith the nominative which 
comes first, as in the examples just given : and so here, 
This convention was really the two Houses of Parliament. 

Kerr's Blackstone, i. 138. 
But not always ; as, . 

His pavilion round about him were dark waters and thick 

clouds of the skies. — Psalm xviii. 11. 
The wages of sin is death. — Hom. vi. 23. 

A similar, question occurs, when the subject-nominative 
and the predicate-nominative differ in person, as we shall see 
more particularly in considering the use of pronouns. We 
commonly say, ' It is I,' but Chaucer says 'It am I ; ' and 
instead of * It is the sheriff's men/ he has ' It ben the sherrefes 
men.' 

Belations of the Subject-nominative and the Predicate-verb, 

110. Generally speaking, the form must be our guide ; 
singular follows singular, and plural follows plural. Some- 
times, however, the meaning overrides the form ; and we 
have to enquire whether the idea of unity, or of plurality is 
intended. 

Wlien the subject-nominative is in the singular, the predi- 
cate-verb is in the singular ; as, ^ Time flies.' 

No matter how many singular or plural nouns, dependent 
on prepositions, or under any other government, may intervene 
between the subject- nominative and the predicate-verb, they 
cannot affect this rule. 

But even the best writers are liable to trip, in such in- 
stances ; as 

The right to recall the governor-general and to declare 
war are vested in the coiu't of directors. 

Kerr's BlacJcstone, i. 96. 

As when the excellence of the Church, of the House of 
Lords and Commons, of the procedure of law courts, 
&c., are inferred from the mere fact that the country 
has prospered under them. 

MiU, Logic, i. 422. 

Here the SfC. must depend on the preposition of; and then 
we have ^ the excellence . . . are.' K it be replied that ^c, 
stands in the place of a second subject-nominative, what are 
we to understand by ^the excellence . . ♦ &c.? ' 



66 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

I recently observed the following passages in tlie reviews 
and magazines : — 

The discovery of gold, however, brought a greatly in- 
creased population to the adjacent colony of Victoria, 
and the superior richness of its gold-fields have since 
maintained it at the head of the group. 
Edinburgh Review^ April 1865» No. 248, p. 357. 

Our fancy to speak of books, and their writers, and 
sellers, have led us aside from the area marked out 
by Mr. Thornbury for his own explorations, so we 
must return to bounds, within which we find Lincoln's- 
Inn Fields. 

Dublin University Magazine^ July 1865. 

111. These are mere slips of the pen, and without constant 
care anyone may fall into similar errors. But some persons 
are guided almost entirely by the ear. In 'the ship sails,' 
and ^ the ships sail,' 'the boy walks,' and * the boys walk,' there 
is an alternation of the letter s which catches the ear, and is 
the chief guide which many people follow. Hence, in ex- 
amining a written sentence, they will ask hoio it 7^eads, often 
meaning nothing more than how it sounds. And thus, if 
several dependent nouns, in the plural, occur between the 
subject-nominative and the predicate- verb, the notion of plu- 
rality takes possession of the mind, and the verb follows in 
the plural. But it is evident that this is a very unsafe method 
of judging; for we ought to be guided by the sense, and not 
by the sound alone. Here, therefore, we should always keep 
the subject-nominative distinctly in view. 

112. If the subject-nominative has a plural form, but is 
still regarded as one thing, the predicate -verb is generally in 
the singular; as 'The "Pleasures of Hope " was written by 
Campbell ; ' because we mean to assert that the poem called 

* The Pleasures of Hope,' was written by Campbell. And 
yet. Dr. Johnson, speaking about his 'Lives of the Poets,' 
says, 'My "Lives" are reprinting,' where the Lives are re- 
garded as plural. In these instances, the intention of the 
writer, and not the form, must be the guide. 

113. Some nouns, which have a plural form, are often used 
as singular ; for example, ' news,' ' pains,' ' means,' ' sum- 
mons,' and the names of sciences, as, ' mathematics,' ' ethics,' 

* optics.' 

Older writers vary considerably in the employment of these 



NOUNS. 67 

words. For example, Shakespeare employs * news ' some- 
times in the singular, at other times in the plural : as, 
Gonzalo, What is the news ? 

Boatswain, The best news is^ that we have safely found 
the king and company. 

Tempest^ v. 1. 
This news is old enough ; yet it is every day's news. 

Measure for Measure^ iii. 2. 
Thus answer I in name of Benedick, 
But hear these ill news with the ears of Claudio. 

Much AdOf ii. 1. 
But wherefore do I tell these news to thee. 

l5^ Hen. IV. iii. 2. 
These news are everywhere ; every tongue speaks them. 

Hen, VIII, ii. 2. 
Wolsey. Wha* more ? 

CromivelL That Cranmer is returned with welcome, 
Installed Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Wolse?/, That's news, indeed. 

Ibid. iii. 2. 

114. So in the use of ^ means,' we observe variety. Occa- 
sionally we find the singular form * mean : ' as. 

Yet nature is made better by no mean^ 
But nature makes that mean ; so, o'er that art, 
Which, you say, adds to nature, is an art 
That nature makes. — Wintei^'s Tale, iv. 3. 

But we also find ' means ' used in the singular : as ; 

1 am courted now with a double occasion; gold, and a 

means to do the prince my master good. — Ibid. iv. 3. 
By this means shall we sound what skill she hath. 

1st Hen. VI. i. 2. 
But it occurs just as often in the plural, and this is the 
more usual construction in modern English : 

Chief Justice, Your means are very slender, and your 

waste is great. 
Falstaff, I would it were otherwise ; I would my means 
were greater, and my waist slenderer. 

2nd Hen. IV. i. 2. 
With all appliances and means to boot. — Ibid. iii. 1. 

115. It is more usual to find ^ pains ' in the plural ; but 
even this word is found in the singular : as, 



68 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Nay, then, thou lov'st it not, 
And all my pains is sorted to no proof. 

Taming of the Shrew, iv. 3. 

.... for this pains 
Caesar hath hanged him. 

Ant, and Cleop, iv. 6. 

116. A collective noun represents a number of individuals 
collected in one mass or group ; as, army, government, com- 
mittee. It is singular in form, but it may often be regarded 
as conveying the idea of plurality. In older English, these 
nouns were frequently considered as singular, where modem 
writers would use them with a verb in the plural : as. 

Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound : they 
shall walk, O Lord, in the light of thy countenance. — 
Psalm Ixxxix. 15. 

Here, however, we observe a mixture of two constructions ; 
for * know ' and ' they ' imply plurality. 

Accordingly, the older grammarians decided that nouns of 
this kind might be treated as either singular or plural. But 
modern grammarians hold that, when the idea of unity is pro- 
minent, the verb must be used in the singular ; when, on the 
other hand, the idea of plurality is prominent, the verb must 
be in the plural : as. 

The House has decided the question. 

The College of Cardinals have elected the Pope. 

117. Professor Bain distinguishes between a collective nonn 
and a noun of multitude, in this way, that a * collective noun ' 
represents a great number of individuals included in one mass 
or body. Thus he says, {English Grammar, p. 12,) * when a 
multitude act together, as a " fleet," or a " parliament," they 
are spoken of in the singular number and have a singular 
verb : as ** the fleet was victorious," " the Parliament was 
opened by the Queen in person." But the designation " noun 
of multitude " is applied to express collective bodies, whose 
action is not collective but individual : as *' the clergy were 
opposed to the measure." ' 

^ According to this view, when the predicate is true of the 
whole mass in its collective unity, the verb should be in the 
singular : as * the fleet is under orders to sail.' But when the 
predicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting 
separately, the verb should be in the plural : as * the people 



NOUNS. 69 

of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice 
and duplicity : ' ^ the public are often deceived by false ap- 
pearances.' — See Bain, English Grammar^ p. 172. 

118. Where so much depends upon the intention of the 
writer, it is difficult to lay down precise rules. We might 
suppose, however, that consistency was desirable ; that having 
once made up our minds to prefer the singular or the plural con- 
struction, we ought to persevere in the same to the end of the 
sentence. Yet Dr. Angus says (Handbook ^ § 365), ' Sometimes 
the two usages are combined in the same sentence with pecu- 
liar force : as, 

Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language. 
— Gen, xi. 6.' 

And Professor Bain remarks {English Grammar^ p. 173) :— 
* The following sentence sounds awkward, but it is strictly 
correct : " The Megarean sect ivas founded by Euclid, not the 
mathematician, and were the happy inventors of logical syl- 
logism, or the art of quibbling." — Tytler. In the first part, the 
sect is spoken of in its collective capacity ; and in the second, 
as individuals.' 

But, to say the least, this sudden change of construction 
within the limits of a sentence, leaves the whole sentence open 
to cavil. Professor Bain admits that the sound is awkward ; 
and this very objection is likely to arouse the suspicion of a 
critic. Besides, if a sentence is somewhat long, and pronouns 
are introduced referring to the collective noun, confusion will 
almost inevitably ensue ; so that, in careless compositions, we 
may even find it in one clause, and they in another. 

119. The safest rule is this : 

1. As to mere form : A collective noun, used as a sub- 

ject-nominative, may take the verb in the singu- 
lar, or in the plural. 

2. As to meaning : Consider whether you intend to 

give prominence to the idea of unity or of plu- 
rality ; and put the verb in the singular, or in 
the plural, accordingly. 

8, But never attempt to combine both constructions 
in the same sentence. 

4. And if pronouns are introduced, referring to the 
collective noun, be careful to employ them con- 
sistently, in the singular, or in the plural, accord- 
ing to the view originally taken. 



70 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

120. When two or more subject-nominatives are used in 
the same sentence, some difficult questions are involved. We 
have to consider the doctrine of contraction, and the vexed 
question whether conjunctions couple sentences alone, or 
whether they may be said to couple words also. See §§ 
99-102. 

We shall discuss the particular cases. 

121. I. Cases, where the subject-nominatives are in the 
singular \ and where the conjunction and is the connective 
employed. 

(a) When the predicate is true of the subjects, not seve- 
rally, but jointly, the verb must be in the plural : 
as, 

William and Mary are a handsome couple. 

Two and three make five. 

The bishop, the earl, and the sheriff hold the 

shire-mote. 
Octavian, Antony and Lepidus constitute the 
triumvirate. 

(J) When the predicate is true of the subjects severally ^ 
the doctrine of contraction may be applied, and the 
predicate-verb, in the singular, may be understood 
of each subject-nominative. In some languages, as 
in Latin and in German, the principle is admitted 
more freely than with us. Thus, in one of Uh- 
land's ballads, the hostess says, 

Mein Bier und Wein ist frisch and klar : 
My Beer and Wine is fresh and clear. 

122. However, there are limitations. If the nouns used as 
subject-nominatives denote living beings, and especially ^^r- 
sons, the verb is always in the plural : as, ^ Caesar and Pompey 
go to war.' And in regard to things without life, the same 
rule is observed where distinct objects are signified. But in 
the case of nouns denoting abstract ideas, as ' virtue,' ^ piety,' 
* vice,' * folly,' and the like, we find considerable variation. 
Here the Latin language freely admits a verb in the singular : 
as, * Cum tempus necessitasque jwstulat, decertandum manu 
est : ' * when occasion and necessity demands, we must fight 
amain.' And those English writers who have formed their 
style upon the Latin models sometimes employ the same con- 
struction : so Hooker speaks of ' the glorious inhabitants of 
those sacred palaces, where nothing but light and blessed im- 



NOUNS. 71 

mortality, no shadow of matter for tears, discontentment, 
griefs, and uncomfortable passions to work upon ; but all joy^ 
tranquillity^ and peace, even for ever and ever doth dwelV — 
Ecclesiastical Polity, i. 4. 

The Oxford edition of 1807 reads, ' do dwell.' 

123. But this form does not find general approval with 
modern critics ; and by some it is condemned as a breach of 
English grammar ; on this ground, that nouns in the singu- 
lar, coupled by the conjunction ' and,' are equivalent to a 
plural. 

As to principle, the form may be defended, if we admit the 
doctrine of contraction. But in practice the following rules 
will be found to work well : — 

Eule /. — ^When the two or more nouns, in the singular, 
mean different things, or represent distinct ideas, put 
the verb in the plural. 

Rule II. — But when the two nouns mean the same thing, 
or very nearly the same, strike out one of them, put 
the verb in the singular, and learn to avoid using two 
words where one is enough. 

124. Whenever modifying words are introduced, such as 
' every,' * each,' ^ no,' showing that the predicate is asserted of 
the subjects severally, the predicate- verb must be in the 
singular. For here, the doctrine of contraction clearly ap- 
plies ; in other words, the predicate-verb is evidently appli- 
cable to every one of the subject-nominatives: as. 

Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace. 

When subject-nominatives in the singular are emphatically 
distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and the 
verb follows in the singular : as. 

Somewhat, and, in many cases, a great deal is put upon us. 

The same principle operates when the phrase ' as well as,' or 
the conjunction * but ' is used : so. 

Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule. 

125. — ^11. Cases where the conjunction or or nor is used. 

Where the connective * or ' or ' nor ' is used, the whole sen- 
tence really involves distinct propositions. Hence, if the sub- 
ject nominatives are in the singiilar, the verb must be in the 
singular : as, 



<2 BULES AND CAUTION'S. 

The secrecary or the treasurer draws up the report. 
Neither the raaster nor the scholar understands the ques- 
tion. 

126. — III. Cases where the subject-nominatives, or some of 
them, are in the plural. 

Where the subject-nominatives are all in the plural, the 
predicate-verb must be in the plural : as, 

Joys and sorrows follow in succession. 

When some of the subject-nominatives are in the singular, 
and some are in the plural, we have to consider the connection 
of the whole sentence : 

{a) Where the conjunction ' and ' is used, even one sub- 
ject-nominative in the plural will require a verb in 
the plural. For, according to the doctrine of con- 
traction, the verb must apply to each subject- 
nominative ; and upon no supposition can a verb 
in the singular agree with a noun in the plural, if 
it be a genuine plural. But it is quite consistent, 
that one or more nouns in the singular, together 
with a noun in the plural, should be followed by a 
verb in the plural. 
(Z>) When subject-nominatives of different numbers are 
separated by ^ or ' or ^ nor,' the verb is generally in 
the plural ; and it is then convenient to place the 
plural subject- nominative next the verb ; as, 

Neither the king nor his ministers were in 
favour of the change. 

When two subject-nominatives of different numbers are 
found in different clauses of the sentence, there are really two 
distinct propositions, and the verb had better be repeated ; as, 
The voice is Jacob's, but the hands are Esau's. 

127. Some peculiarities deserve notice in constructions where 
the verb precedes the subject-nominatives. In the Welsh 
language there is a curious rule that when the verb stands 
first it must be in the singular, even though the subject-nomi- 
native following be in the plural. Without going to this 
extreme, many of our English writers use great license, when 
the verb stands first. Shakespeare says, — 

There is tears for his love ; joy for his fortune ; honour 
for his valour ; and death for his ambition. 

Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. 



NOUNS. 73 

There '5 two or three of us have seen strange sights. 

Julius Ccesar, i. 3. 

Hence when a predicate-verb is followed by two or more 
subject-nominatives in the singular, the verb will often be 
found in the singular, as. 

Now abidetli faith, hope, charity ; these three. 

1 Cor. xiii. 13. 
Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. 

Matthew vi. 13. 
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 
The attribute to awe and majesty, 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. 

Merchant of Venice^ iv. 1. 



POSITION". 

128. Those languages which have great variety of inilection 
admit many changes of position in the order of words. Thus 
in Latin, the sentence ' C^sar G-allos vicit' will admit six 
different collocations, each having a different emphasis ; as,^ — 

1. Csesar Gallos vicit. 

2. Gallos Csesar vicit. 

3. Caesar vicit Gallos. 

4. Gallos vicit Cgesar. 

5. Vicit Csesar Gallos. 

6. Vicit Gallos Csesar. 

It is difficult to express these diversities in Enghsh, without 
turning the active voice into the passive, in some cases ; but 
the following version will convey an idea of the change of 
emphasis. 

1. Cassar conquered the Gauls. 

2. The Gauls were conquered by Caesar. 

3. It was Caesar who conquered the Gauls. 

4. It was the Gauls who were conquered by Csesar. 

5. Caesar did conquer the Gauls. 

6. The Gauls were conquered by Csesar. 

129- But just in proportion as there are fewer inflections in 
English, so the position becomes important to determine the 
sense. 

Because, where there are no changes in the form of the 
word itself, to denote various relations, these relations must 

E 



74 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 

be marked either by particles, as for example by prepositions, 
or by the position of the words themselves. In the sentences, 
* John beats Peter,' and ' Peter beats John,' there is nothing 
but the position to show which gives the blow, and which 
receives it. Whereas in Latin the form of the words would 
show the distinction : — 

Johannes Petrwm verberat. 
Tetrus Johann^??z verberat. 

130. Hence it is that, in English, the order of words 
becomes most important; for in very many instances bad 
order is not merely an inelegance, but it is positively bad 
grammar. 

As a general rule the English language follows the logical 
order of subject and predicate. The subject-nominative comes 
first ; then we have the predicate-verb, or the predicate-verb 
followed by a predicate-nominative, as the case may be. If 
the verb is transitive, the object generally follows the verb. 

A change in the order of words often takes place to mark 
emphasis. The Tery change itself awakens attention ; and, 
generally, importance is assigned to those words which occupy 
the first place. Hence, we often find the predicate, or por- 
tions of the predicate preceding the subject; as, — 

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. — Acts xix. 84. 

In another passage our translators have not been so suc- 
cessful. We read, Eev. xviii. 4, * Babylon the great is fallen, 
is fallen,' where the repetition at the close weakens the 
emphasis. But on the other hand, * Fallen, fallen is Babylon 
the great ' would call attention to the most emphatic word in 
the sentence ; and this, indeed, is the order of the original : — 
"ETTfo-f V, tTTsae 'BafivXwy rj jjLeyaXrj, 

131. In indicative sentences the predicate-verb precedes 
the subject-nominative, when the sentence or clause opens 
with * neither,' or * nor,' (used in the sense of *and not'): 
as, — 

Thou know'st that aU my fortunes are at sea ; 
Neither have I money, nor commodity 
To raise a present sum. 

Merchant of Venice, i. 1. 

My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, 
Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate 
Upon the fortune of this present year. — Ibid, 



NOUNS. 75 

So too after the particle ^ there/ used not as an adverb of 
place, but by way of introducing a sentence : 
There was sl king in Thule. 
There came a philosopher from India. 

When a conditional clause is employed without the con- 
junction * if,' an auxiliary verb may stand first : as, 
Were he present, he would say so. 
Had I been there I should have seen him. 

When other parts of the predicate, as, for example, the ob- 
ject, are placed first for the sake of emphasis, the predicate- 
verb will often precede the subject- nominative, in order to 
keep the various parts of the predicate as near together as 
possible : 

Other refuge have I none. 

Charles Wesley, 

So when an adverb, or an adverbial clause, stands first, the 
verb may precede the subject-nominative : as, 
Here folloiced a long ti^ain of officials. 

In this unhappy battle of Newbury, luas slain the Lord 
Viscount Falkland, 

Cautions, 

132. — 1. Take care that there be a subject-nominative in 
the sentence. 

The following sentence occurs in a well-known passage, 
where the historian Eobertson is describing the character of 
Mary Queen of Scots : — 

Polite, affable, insinuating, sprightly, and capable of 
speaking and of writing with equal ease and dignity. 

The context shows that we must supply the words * she was.' 
The whole passage reads thus : 

To all the charms of beauty, and the utmost elegance 
of external form, she added those accomplishments 
which render their impression irresistible. Polite^ 
affable, insinuating, sprightly, and capable of speaking 
and of writing with equal ease and dignity. Sudden, 
however, and violent in all her attachments ; because 
her heart was warm and unsuspicious. Impatient of 
contradiction ; because she had been accustomed from 
her infancy to be treated as a queen. No stranger, on 

E 2 



76 / RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

some occasions, to dissimulation ; which, in that per- 
fidious court where she received her education, was 
reckoned among the necessary arts of government. Not 
insensible of flattery, or unconscious of that pleasure 
with which almost every woman beholds the influence 
of her own beauty. Formed with the qualities which 
we love, not with the talents that we admire, she was 
an agreeable woman rather than an illustrious queen. 
. — Eobertson, History of Scotland^ book vii. 

Grammatically considered, the whole passage from * Polite, 
afiable,' to ' illustrious queen,' forms one long sentence, of 
-which ^she' is the subject-nominative, and * was' is the pre- 
dicate-verb. 

This form of composition is highly rhetorical, and is admired 
by some critics ; but youthful composers should be cautious 
in imitating this style. 

133. — 2. Take care that there be a predicate in the sen- 
tence. 

In other words, having a subject to speak about, take care 
to say something about it. This rule is more frequently 
violated than the former. It is ofl:en observable in answers 
to questions in examination. Pupils should be habituated to 
give full answers ; that is to say, each answer should form a 
complete sentence. 

Take this instance : 

The poems of Homer, which have exercised an im- 
portant influence upon the literature of the world. 

But what of the poems of Homer, which have exercised an 
important influence upon the literature of the world ? There 
is, indeed, a verb, ' have exercised ; ' but it occiurs in the ad- 
jective-clause qualifying the subject-nominative ^ poems.' But 
nothing is predicated. Nothing is stated, nothing is affirmed 
or denied respecting the poems of Homer. 

The verses containing the remonstrance addressed to 
Eichard 11. by Old John of Gaunt, * time-honoured Lancas- 
: ter,' are sometimes quoted thus : — 

This royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle, 

This earth of majiesty, this seat of Mars, 

This other Eden, demi-paradise ; 

This fortress built by Nature for herself 

Against infection and the hand of war ; 

This happy breed of men, this little world ; 



KOUNS. 77 

Tliis precious stone set in tlie silver sea, 

Which serves it in the office of a wall, 

Or as a moat defensive to a house, 

Against the envy of less happier lands ; 

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. 

But what about * this England ? ' If we refer to the origi- 
nal, we find that the remonstrance does not end there ; but 
goes on as follows : — 

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, 

This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings, 

Feared by their breed, and famous by their birth, 

Eenowned for their deeds as far from home 

(For Christian service and true chivalry) 

As is the sepulchre in stubborn Jewry 

Of the world's ransom, Blessed Mary's Son ; 

This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land, 

Is now leased out (I die pronouncing it) 

Like to a tenement, or pelting farm ; 

England, bound in with the triumphant sea. 

Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege 

Of w^atery Neptune, is now hound in with shame. 

With inky blots, and rotten parchment bonds : 

That England, that was wont to conquer others. 

Hath made a shameful conquest of itself. 

Ah, would the scandal vanish wdth my life, 

How happy then were my ensuing death ! 

Richard 11.^ ii. 1. 
This passage contains three distinct propositions, followed 
by an exclamation : 

1 . This royal throne of kings ... is now leased out. 

2. England ... is now bound in with shame. 

3. England . . . hath made a shameful conquest of itself. 
Then follows the exclamation ' would the scandal vanish . . . 

how happy were my . . . death ! ' 

134. 3. The careless use of the Case Absolute gives occa- 
sion to a class of errors, into which Latin scholars are pecu- 
liarly liable to fall. As the Latin language has no perfect 
participle active, the perfect participle passive is used in its 
stead ; but both the participle and the substantive, with which 
it agrees, are put in the ablative case. Now, in Latin, this 
ablative case is a safeguard ; because the noun or pronoun, 
so used absolutely, can never be mistaken for a nominative. 



78 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

But when this construction is imitated in English, the safe- 
guard is lost. Some grammarians tell us that nouns so 
employed are in the Nominative Absolute in English. If, then, 
a so-called nominative absolute be employed in the beginning 
of a sentence, the reader may mistake it for a subj ect -nomina- 
tive ; and afterwards, when the true subject-nominative is 
introduced, perplexity may arise. (See § 27.) The confusion 
is made worse when a participle is used, unconnected with 
any substantive at all. Here is part of an advertisement, pub- 
lished by the proprietor of an educational establishment : 

* Having to pass an examination for admission, a few 
months' preparation at is strongly recommended.' 

In this sentence the participle is used without any substan- 
tive at all. Of course, the meaning is, ^ As pupils have to 
pass an examination for admission, a few months' preparation, 
^c. : ' and the form which the writer had in his mind was 

^ Pupils having to pass an examination ' By further 

license, the writer omits the word ' pupils,' and the phrase 
stands ^ Having to pass,' without stating who is to pass. 

135. So here: 

Having found that there were great difficulties on both 
sides, it was resolved to proceed no further in the 
business. 

From this collection of words we infer that a resolution was 
formed to proceed no further in a certain business. But we 
are not told ivJio found difficulties, or who resolved to proceed 
no further ; although the participle ^having found' leads us 
to expect a subj ect -nominative indicating persons. The pas- 
sage is quoted from the Report of a Committee, who were 
ashamed to confess that they had abandoned the business in 
question. If they had said, ^ we resolved to proceed no further,' 
they would not only have wi'itten correctly, but they would 
have told the whole truth. This confession, however, did not 
suit the purpose of the Committee ; and, as one fault leads to 
another, their dissimulation led them into bad grammar. 

136. In the early part of a sentence, before the introduction 
of the subject-nominative, it is dangerous to use the Case 
Absolute ; and it is equally dangerous to employ introductory 
participles, referring to any noun, other than the subject- 
nominative : for example, 

* Having gone through this amount of villany, King George 
thought he was qualified to represent him at the court 



NOUNS. 79 

of Lisbon, and thither Lord Tyrawley proceeded ac- 
cordingly.' — Doran, Annals of the Stage^ ii. 275. 

The context shows that it was not King George, but Lord 
Tyrawley, who had gone through an amount of villany ; and 
that therefore the King thought Tyrawley a suitable represen- 
tative. But the phrase * having gone through this amount of 
villany,' stands in treasonable proximity to King George ; 
and there is nothing in the form of the sentence to guard us 
against making a wrong application of the phrase* 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

137. The Possessive in English corresponds to the Genitive 
in Latin and other languages ; and is the only case in English 
nouns where we find a change of termination. The form in 
's is the only case- ending in our nouns. These exhibit no 
difference in form between the nominative and objective cases. 
The possessive alone exhibits a variation. 

In Anglo-Saxon there are several declensions. Some nouns 
form their genitive singular in ~es, as smithy smithes ; others 
in a?z, others in e. But in the transition from Anglo-Saxon 
to English, the form in es seems to have been preferred in all 
instances ; it was written -6S, -25, -?/5, and finally '5. 

According to Ben Jonson, {English Grammar, c. xiii.) the 
change from es to is was the cause of a singular grammatical 
error, and * brought in first the monstrous syntax of the pro- 
noun his joyning with a noune betokening a possessor, as the 
Prince his house, for the Prince's house.' 

Dr. Lowth thinks that ' Christ his sake ' in our Liturgy is 
a mistake of the printers, or of the compilers. He compares, 
* Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord,' 1 
Kings xv. 14 ; and ^ To see whether Mordecai his matters 
would stand,' Esther iii. 4 ; where, however, our more recent 
copies read ' Asa's heart,' and ^ Mordecai's matters.' 

Donne says : 

Where is this mankind now ? Who lives to age 
Fit to be made Methusalem his page ? 

Pope, in his translation of the Odyssey, has, 

By young Telemachus his blooming years. 

Addison writes : 

My paper is the Ulysses his bow, in which every man of 
wit or learning may try his strength. — Guardian^ 98. 



80 HULES AND CAUTIONS. 

And it is evident that Addison thus wrote advisedly ; for 
elsewhere he tells us that ^ the same single letter s on many 
Occasions does the office of the whole word, and represents the 
his and her of our forefathers.' (Spectator, 135.) 

* The latter instance/ says Dr. Lowth, ' might have shown 
him how groundless this notion is ; for it is not easy to con- 
ceive how the letter s added to a feminine noun should repre- 
sent the word her, any more than, if added to a plural noun, 
as ^the children's bread,' it can stand for their. But the 
direct derivation of this case from the Saxon genitive is suffi- 
cient of itself to decide the matter.' (See Lowth, English 
Grammar, p. 32.) 

138. But along with the form in '5, we have another method 
of expressing the genitive case, namely by means of the pre- 
position of; we say * the master's house,' and ' the house of 
the master.' 

The origin of this second form is an interesting question. 
Dr. Adams says (Elements^ § 144), * The use of the prepo- 
sition of to express the genitive was unknown in Anglo-Saxon. 
It was introduced from the Old Norse by the Danes.' Other 
grammarians think that it was introduced by the Normans, 
and that it is a translation of the French de. 

There is a fashion in grammar, as in other things. Some 
gi-ammarians have a tendency to trace everything to a Saxon 
or Danish origin ; and some of them maintain that the Nor- 
man-French has had no influence upon our grammar. They 
cannot deny that our vocabulary is made up to a great extent 
of Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French; but they tell us that 
the same combination finds no place in our grammatical forms. 

Professor Max Muller holds that there is no sucTi thing as 
a mixed language. Of course he does not dispute the mix- 
ture of words in a vocabulary ; he admits that we can detect 
Celtic, Norman, Greek, and Latin ingredients in the English 
dictionary ; but he denies the mixture of grammatical forms 
in a language. For he calls grammar the * blood of the 
language ;' and he asserts that, in this sense, the English 
language is Teutonic. He maintains (Science of Language^ 
1st Series, p. 70), that ' not a single drop of foreign blood has 
entered into the organic system of the English language. The 
grammar, the blood and soul of the language, is as pure and 
unmixed in English, as spoken in the British Isles, as it was 
when spoken on the shores of the German Ocean by the 
Angles, Saxons, and Juts of the Continent.' Again he says 



NOUNS. 81 

expressly (p. 74), ^ Languages, thougli mixed in their dic- 
tionary, can never be mixed in their grammar. For,' he adds, * 
* we may form whole sentences in English consisting entirely 
of Latin or Romance words, yet whatever there is left of 
grammar in English bears unmistakeable traces of Teutonic 
workmanship,' 

139. We shall test this principle as we go along ; but we 
premise that the argument from analogy leads us to regard 
the doctrine with suspicion. The English language, like the 
constitution, the law, the custom of the country, partakes of the 
nature of a compromise. We have commons and barons, 
common law and feudal tenure, democracy and aristocracy; 
so, too, in our vocabulary we have English words and French 
derivatives. It would, therefore, be strange if there were no 
traces of French idiom in our grammar. There are some 
forms which can be explained on no other principle ; and I am 
inclined to think that, wherever we have double forms inEnglish 
grammar, one of them has arisen from the Norman-French. 

140- So much for the argument from analogy. Then, if 
we may quote one authority against another, Mr. Marsh is 
decidedly of opinion that the English grammar is mixed ; that 
although the traces of foreign idiom may not be numerous, 
they are still to be found. 

He admits that grammatical structure is a much more 
essential and permanent characteristic of languages than the 
vocabulary ; and that, therefore, it is alone to be considered in 
tracing their history and determining their ethnological affini- 
ties. But this theory, he thinks, is carried too far when it is 
insisted that no amalgamation of the grammatical character- 
istics of different speeches is possible. The English language 
has been affected, in both vocabulary and structure, by the 
influence of all the Gothic and Eomance tongues with which 
it has been brought into long and close contact. Doubtless, 
this influence is most readily perceived in the stock of words ; 
but the same influence, though smaller in extent, is not less 
unequivocal in its effects upon the syntax. 

He then gives instances ; as, the double forms in the com- 
parison of adjectives : (1) By the terminations -er and -est '^ 
(2) by prefixing the adverbs more and most. So also the 
double forms in the genitive of nouns. He says, ^ the pos- 
sessive relation between nouns was expressed in Anglo-Saxon 
by a regular possessive or genitive case, and not by a prepo- 
sition ; in Norman-French, in general, by a preposition only. 

E 3 



82 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

In English botli modes are used.' (Marsh, Origin and History 
of the English Language^ pp. 4o-48.) 

141. The Germans can place their genitive before or after 
the nonn on which it depends. They can say, Gottes Gnade, 

* God's grace,' and die Liehe Gottes^ literally ' the love God's,' 
for * God's love,' or ' the love of God.' But in English we 
have not the power of placing the possessive immediately 
after the governing noun: we may say, Hhis work is 
Cicero's;' but not ' this is a work Cicero's.' 

And yet we can say, ' this is a play of Shakespeare's.' I 
have sometime* suspected that this phrase has resulted from 
an amalgamation of the two idioms; and that our grammarians, 
finding the anomaly in existence, have turned it to use, and 
put a new meaning upon it. For they explain the phrase 
as signifying ' a play of Shakespeare's plays ; ' that is, ' one of 
the plays written by Shakespeare.' As they correctly remark, 
we may say, * a son of your's,' but not ' a father of your's ; ' 
for a man may have several sons, but he can have only one 
father. And thus they distinguish ^ a bust of Cicero,' that is, 
*a bust representing Cicero,' from ' a bust of Cicero's,' meaning 

* one of the busts in the possession of Cicero.' 

I believe that this distinction, however ingenious, is an 
after thought ; and that the form has arisen from a mixture 
of two constructions. 

142. In older English we find a genitive of juxta-position : 

so Chaucer says, of the Knight, 

He never yit no vilonye ne sayde 
In al his lyf unto no maner wight, 
Q- Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 70. 

that is, * to any manner of person.' And so again, ^ a manere 
Serjeant,' that is, 'a kind o/ servant.' 

This is the usual idiom in Welsh, in which language there 
is no case-ending to mark the genitive. 

In the phrases ^ for conscience' sake,' ' for righteousness' 
sake,' it is usual to employ a mark of apostrophe. Those 
who are curious in minute points may inquire whether the 
mark is necessary. It might be argued that the word ' con- 
science' acquires, by position, the force of a genitive case ; 
just as in composition we say the * house-top ' for the 

* house's-top.' In composition sometimes the form in -s is 
used, and sometimes not ; as 

wolf's-bane = wolf's poison, 
hen-bane = hen's poison. 



NOUNS. 83 

143. In some instances, we find the preposition of used, 
where we might expect a noun in apposition ; as ^ The city 
o/Rome ' for ' The city Rome,' Urhs Roma, 

We may term this the apposition genitive. We find it 
used, 

1. In geographical descriptions : as, 

The city q/ London. 
The town o/ Liverpool. 
The borough o/Wigan. 

But we are not consistent ; for we say, ^ The river Thames,' 
not ' The river of Thames ; ' and ^ The Hill of Howth,' but 
* Mount Lebanon.' 

2. In descriptions of persons or things: as, 

A rogue q/an attorney. 
A monster of a man. 
A brute of a dog. 
A rag of an umbrella. 

We employ this second construction chiefly in a humorous 
or satirical sense ; but in Welsh the construction is idiomatic, 
and employed generally. Thus Rowland teUs us, {Welsh 
Grammar^ § 411) ^ two nouns are set in apposition by means 
of the preposition o (^ of '), when the one describes the 
character^ occupation^ &c. of the other ; and when one of them 
may be converted into an adjective, or, in fact, frequently 
omitted ; thus gwr o hrophwydj ' a man of a prophet,' is equi- 
valent to gwr prophwydol, ^ sl man prophetic,' or simply pro- 
phwi/d, ^ a prophet.' 

I do not venture to say that this idiom has come in from 
the Welsh ; but I certainly think that the British element in 
our history and our language demands more careful attention 
than it has yet received. 

144. We have, then, five constructions of the genitive case 
in English : 

1. The form in 's : Milton's poem. 

2. With the preposition of: The life of Dryden. 

3. A combination of the two : A work of Cicero's. 

4. By juxta-position : A many people, (for * many ' is 
an old noun, signifying a ^ multitude'). 

5. By apposition : The city of Paris. 
Compare the French, La ville de Paris, 

145. With regard to meaning we observe that the genitive 
has a double force. 



84 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 

1. The subjective genitive, as it is termed, indicates some 
quality of the noun on which it is dependent ; and as, among 
other qualities, it denotes possession, this kind of genitive has 
given rise to the term possessive case, and is generally ex- 
pressed in Englisk by the form 's ; as * the master's house.' 

2. The objective genitive expresses the object of some feel- 
ing or action. It is commonly rendered in English by the 
preposition 'of;' as 'the love of fame;' 'the pursuit of 
wealth.' In fact, if the governing noun were turned into a 
verb, the objective genitive would be turned into the objec- 
tive (or accusative) case. For example, ' he has a love of 
fame ' is equivalent to ' he loves fame.' Sometimes the same 
relation is expressed by other prepositions : as ' longing for 
rest,' ' remedy /or pain,' ' love to virtue.' 

146. As the form in '5, called the possessive case, chiefly 
denotes possession, its use is generally limited to words which 
denote persons or living beings : as, 

The master's house. 
The lion's mouth. 
But in older English, and in poetry, the form is often applied 
to words denoting things or abstract notions : as, 
The house's beauty. 
Sin's poison. 
With pronouns, the form in '5 is often used objectively : for 
instance, his stands for ' of him : ' thus, 

His virtues 
Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against 
The deep damnation of his taking off. 

Macbeth^ i. 6. 

147. When a compound name is used, the final word alone 
takes the termination '5 : as, ' the Bard of Lomond's Lay.' 

If two nouns used in apposition are thrown into the geni- 
tive case, and if the principal noun comes last, that noun alone 
takes the termination 's : as, 

For thy servant David's sake. 

Psalm cxxxii. 10. 
But when the principal noun comes first, and the apposition 
noun follows, we find diversity of usage. Some would employ 
the form 's with the last word : as, 

1. I bought it at Tonson the bookseller's. 
Others would prefer : 

2. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller. 



NOUNS. 85 

While others would repeat the form with each word : as, 
3. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller's. 

The first and third examples are the most defensible in 
theory ; for in the first case, we may regard ^ Tonson the 
bookseller ' as one compound term ; and the '5 follows regu- 
larly at the end. In the third case, we have an ordinary 
instance of apposition. 

But the second case, though the least defensible in theory, 
is the most convenient in instances where two or more words 
in apposition follow the principal possessive : as, 

I bought it at Tonson's, the bookseller and stationer. 

148. When two possessives are used, coupled by the con- 
junction and^ we have to consider whether the governing 
noun applies to them jointly or severally. 

1 . If the governing noun applies to the possessives jointly, 

it is sufficient to affix the form 's to the final posses- 
sive : as, 

William and Mary's house. 

The King and Queen's marriage. 

2. But when the governing noun applies to the posses- 

sives severally, the form '5 should be attached to 
each : 

The Parliament's and the King's forces ap- 
proached each other. 
The work was neither Cicero's nor Seneca's. 
So, too, when any words intervene, throwing a pause upon 
the first possessive, the form 's should be used in both in- 
stances : as, 

These are William's, as well as Mary's books. 

149. The construction involving the form which we call 
the * infinitive, or gerund in -ing ' demands carefiil considera- 
tion. Take, for example : 

Wliat is the meaning of this ladu's holding vjj her fan ? 
These are the rules of Grammar, by the observing of which 
you may avoid mistakes. 

Some grammarians call this form in -ing a Gerund ; others 
a Participle ; and others, a Verbal, or a Verbal Substantive. 

Dr. Lowth says (English Grammar^ p. 125) : — ^ The parti- 
ciple with an article before it, and the preposition of after it, 
becomes a substantive, expressing the action itself which the 



86 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

verb signifies ; as, ^^ These are the rules of Grammar by the 
observing o/whicli you may avoid mistakes." Or it may be 
expressed by the participle or gerund ; " by observing which ; " 
not, " by observing 0/ which ; " nor, " by the obsei^ving which ; " 
for either of those two phrases would be a confounding of two 
distinct forms.' 

He then states the principle on which this rule is founded : 

* a word which has the article before it, and the possessive 
preposition of after it, must be a noun ; and if a noun, it 
ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not have the 
regimen of a verb.' 

But Dr. Lowth seems to confound a ' noun ' with a ' sub- 
stantive ; ' the infinitive mood of a verb may be used substan- 
tively, yet without losing its powers as a verb. Beside, the 
prefixing of the article does not turn any part of a verb into a 
>substantive ; but, on the contrary, because it is used substan- 
tively, it is capable of taking the article. 

Hence all the four forms may be defended : 

1. by observing which. 

2. by the observing 0/ which. 

3. by observing c)/ which. 

4. by the observing which. 

1. We have the simple infinitive, or gerund, governing the 

objective ^ which.' 

2. The infinitive, with the article, is used substantively, 

and followed by the genitive, * of which.' 

3. The infinitive, without the article, is used substantively, 

and followed by the genitive, ^ of which.' 

4. The infinitive is used substantively, with the article, but 

still retains its powers as a verb, and governs the ob- 
jective, * which.' 

POSITION. 

150. The form in -s precedes the governing word : as ^ the 
father's house/ * the master's dog.' In German the cor- 
responding form may follow the governing noun: as * ein 
Werk Schiller's,' literally ' a Work Schiller's,' where we say, 

* a work of Schiller,' or ' a work of Schiller's.' And it is 
curious that both these English phrases are questioned ; some 
grammarians doubt the one, and some the other. One says 
that ^ a work of Schiller ' is absolute nonsense, and not English. 
Another maintains that ' a work of Schiller's' is a blunder, 



, NOUNS. 87 

and not to be allowed. I have already stated my opinion, 
that ^ a work of Schiller's' has arisen from a confusion of the 
two forms ; aad it certainly is warranted by the authority of 
good writers. On the other hand, I see no reason to condemn 

* a work of Schiller,' meaning ' a work written by Schiller.' 

151. But as we have two forms in English, we should be 
careful to avail ourselves of this advantage, in order to guard 
against ambiguity of expression. 

For example, where Hume says, ' They attacked Northum- 
berland's house, whom they put to death,' we observe a little 
awkwardness in that form of expression. It seems better to 
say, * They attacked the house of Northumberland, whom 
they put to death.' For although the gender of the pronoun 
shows that Northumberland is referred to, yet we are so 
accustomed in English to find the antecedent coming imme- 
diately before the relative, that the position of * house ' between 
the two makes us fancy that there is something wrong. It 
is a good rule that, if we can make any alteration which 
will prevent the attention of the reader from being called to 
the mere form of words, we ought to avail ourselves of the 
privilege, and to ^ his attention, not upon the sign, but 
upon the thing signified. 

OBJECTIVE. 

152, We saw, § 13 — 20, that there may be various kinds 
of Objectives in a sentence ; and we distinguished three ; the 
Primary and Secondary Objectives, and the Complement- 
Objective. 

As an example of the care required to distinguish Objectives, 
we may take the following passage : — 

Lafeu. They say miracles are past; and we have our 
philosophical persons to make modern and familiar 
things supernatural and causeless. Hence it is that 
we make trifles of terrors ; ensconcing ourselves into 
seeming knowledge, when we should submit oiu'selves 
to an unknown fear.— JZZ's TFeZZ, ii. 3. 
In some editions the words are pointed thus : — * to make 
modern and familiar things, supernatural and causeless.' But 
the meaning is just the contrary : ^ to make modern and fami- 
liar, things supernatural and causeless.' 

The word ^modern' is used in the literal sense of * daily,' 

* trivial,' ' common-place,' and the meaning is * to modernise 



8B RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

and familiarise things, which are really above nature, and 
beyond the laws of cause and effect, as commonly understood 
by us.' 

So also the phrase * we make trifles of terrors ' means, * we 
turn terrors into sport.' The adjectives 'supernatural' and 
* causeless ' are used to qualify the objective ' things ; ' while 
the adjectives 'modern' and 'familiar' are complement- 
objectives, to be taken in connection with the verb ' make.' 

153. In our version of the Scriptures, we read : 

Who maketh his angels spirits ; his ministers a flaming 
fire. — Psalm civ. 4. 
It has sometimes been suggested that this passage might be 
taken just the other way : 

Who maketh the winds his messengers ; the flames of 
fire his ministers. 

But I have some doubts as to the latter clause. Compare, 
too, Hebrews i. 7, 8. 

154. As there is, in English nouns, no distinction of form 
between nominative and objective, the order of words is a mat- 
ter of great importance. In the following passage from Gibbon, 
objectives are immediately followed by nominatives ; and the 
reader is obliged to peruse the sentence more than once, in 
order to discover where the objectives end, and the nomi- 
natives begin. Speaking of Theodoric, he says : 

The ambassadors who resorted to Ravenna from the most 
distant countries of Europe admired his wisdom, mag- 
nificence and courtesy ; and if he sometimes accepted 
either slaves or arms, white horses or strange animals, 
the gift of a sun-dial, a waterclock, or a musician, 
admonished even the princes of Gaul of the superior 
art and industry of his Italian subjects. 

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire^ c. 39. 

After a little reflection, it is easy to see that the objectives 
end at animals, and the nominatives begin with the gift of a 
sun-dial. But a writer should not cause his readers to 
hesitate, even for a moment, upon mere points of grammar. 

155. As a general rule, transitive verbs govern an objec- 
tive, and intransitives do not. But we must be very care- 
ful to watch the change of construction in verbs. For an 
intransitive verb, when compounded with a preposition, may 
acquire a transitive force ; and as, in English, the preposition 



NOUKS. 89 

is generally not attacliGcl to the verb, hut put after it, the con- 
struction is sometimes misunderstood. 

For instance, imn is an intransitive verb ; but run through is 
transitive, in the sense oi {1) loierce^ (2) waste : as, 

They ran him through, with a sword. 

He ran through his property. 
Here him is the objective, governed by the compound verb 
ran through ; and property is the objective, governed, not by 
the preposition through, but by the compound verb ran through. 
For we might turn the sentences thus : 

They pierced him with a sword. 

He squandered his property. 
See §§ 490, 491. 

156. These constructions should be distinguished from 
others, where the intransitive, used mth a preposition, still 
remains intransitive : as ' depart from,' ' despair of.' But one 
remark is common to both ; that this appending of a preposi- 
tion gives rise to the idiom of throwing a preposition to the 
end of the sentence : as, 

This I was afraid of. 

That result I despaired of 
Those grammarians who derive their notions from the idiom 
of the Latin language, condemn this usage of the preposition 
as inelegant ; but more recent investigations, in the Germanic 
dialects, have proved that this is an old English idiom. — See 
§§ 483-485. 

157. A noun denoting time, space, or measure is often used 
absolutely ; and from the analogy of similar constructions in 
Latin, we say that such nouns are in the objective case : as, 

They rode all day. 
That tower was twenty feet high. 

In 1661, the justices fixed the labourer's wages at seven 
shillings a week, wheat seventy shillings the quarter, and 
the labourer worked twelve hours a day. — Macaulay, 
It has been surmised, that a, in these constructions, is not 
the indefinite article, but a remnant of the Anglo-Saxon pre- 
position an, ' in,' ^ on.'' But see § 304. 

158. Dr. Angus remarks, {Handhooh, § 413) that the prepo- 
sition o/is sometimes erroneously used with an adjective, in 
such constructions as the following : 

Let a gallows be made o/ fifty cubits high. — Esther v. 14, 
To an infant of two or three years old. — Wayland. 



90 



RULES ANB CAUTIONS. 



But in the present state of our knowledge, we must guard 
against hasty judgments. We must not rashly condemn an 
idiomatic usage, if it be really idiomatic ; but we must exa- 
mine the custom of old writers, before we arrive at a final 
conclusion. 

159. A noun in the objective case is often found with an 
intransitive verb, when the noun and the verb are akin in 
meaning. This is called in Latin grammar the Cognate Accu- 
sative : as, ^ to dream a dream,' ^ to run a race.' So, 

Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end 
be like his. — Numbers xxiii. 10. 

160. The infinitive mood, used substantively, can stand as 
an objective : \ John loves to study ; ' and the infinitive so 
employed does not lose its power as a verb, but may have 
another objective dependent upon itself: as. 

Ladies, you deserve 
To have a temple built you. 

CoriolanuSj v. 3. 
Occasionally, we find a forerunning it employed to show 
that an infinitive phrase is coming : as, 

Thou dost ; and think'st it much to tread the ooze 

Of the salt deep. Tempest^ i. 2. 

161. We saw, §§ 37, 38, that when a sentence takes the 
place of an objective, there are three forms in which the sub- 
ordinate clause may appear : 

1. I know [he is eloquent]. 

2. I know [that he is eloquent] 

3. I know [him to be eloquent]. 

We have termed the objective Am, in the third example, a 
* subject-accusative,' because it forms the subject of the sub- 
ordinate clause, and yet it stands in the accusative or objec- 
tive case before the infinitive to he. This mode of explanation 
is borrowed from the Latin grammarians, and is the most satis- 
factory that can be oiFered. 

POSITION. 

162. As a general rule, the objective follows the governing 
verb; but sometimes for the sake of emphasis, the order is 
reversed, and the objective stands first : as, 

Honey firom out the gnarled hive I'll bring. 

Keats, Endymion^ 4. 



NOUNS. 91 

Such sober certainty of waking bliss 
I never heard till now. 

Milton, Comus, 263. 

As pronouns often exhibit variations to mark difference of 
case, there is, with them, less danger of confusion ; and a pro- 
noun in the objective is freely placed before the verb : as, 
Him the Almighty Power 
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 44-5. 

So, too, when the subject-nominative denotes a person, and 
the objective a thing or quality : as. 

Equal toil the good commander endures with the common 
soldier. 

Interrogative and relative pronouns, when used in the ob- 
jective, occupy the first place in the sentence or clause ; as, 

* whom did he mean "? ' ' this is the man whom I mentioned.' 

THE SECONDAKY OBJECTIVE. 

163. In Latin, some verbs govern two accusatives ; others 
an accusative and a dative ; others an accusative and a geni- 
tive. What we have termed the * secondary objective ' cor- 
responds to the second accusative, to the dative, or to the 
genitive in the Latin construction. 

The employment of the secondary objective, in place of a 
dative, is particularly observable in the usage of personal pro- 
nouns ; for, me and thee are old datives, as well as accusatives ; 
and hi7n is a true dative, though we commonly employ it as an 
accusative. 

164. The secondary objective is formed after verbs of 

* giving,' • telling,' * showing : ' as. 

Give me that book. 
I will tell thee a tale. 
They showed him all. 

Give sorrow words : the grief that does not speak, 
Whispers the o'erfraught heart, and bids it break. 

Macbeth, iv. 3. 

165. The secondary objective, in the case of personal pro- 
nouns, is often used to represent the person for whom, for 
whose benefit, or at whose request anything is done. This 
corresponds to what is called the dativus commodi : so, 



92 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Prince Henry. I am good friends with my father, and 

may do anything. 
Falstaff, Eob me the exchequer the first thing thou doest. 

l5^ Hen. IV. iii. 3. 
Talbot. Convey me Salisbury into his tent. 

1st Hen. VL i. 4. 
Petruchio. Villain, I say, knock me here soundly. 
Grumio. Knock you here, sir ! why, sir, what- am I, sir, 

that I should knock you here, sir ? 
Petruchio. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, 
And rap me well. 

Taming of the Shreiv, i. 2. 

166. The secondary objective is found after the verbs list 
and like, both in the sense of ' please ;' after seem and think in 
the sense of ^ appear : ' as, 

And al that likith me, I dare wel sayn 
It likith the. 

Chaucer. 
i.e.y ' all that pleaseth me, pleaseth thee.' 
When in Salamanca's cave 
Him listed his magic wand to wave, 
The bells would ring in Notre Dame. 

Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel, ii. 13. 
Yet there, meseems, I hear her singing loud. 

Sidney. 
Hotspur. By heaven, methinks, it were an easy leap 

To pluck bright honour from the pale-faced 
moon. 

1st Henry IV. i. 3. 
Hamlet. Madam, how like you this play ? 
Queen. The lady protests too much, methinks. 

Hamlet, iii. 2: 
In such phrases as * methinks,' * meseems,' ' meseemeth,' the 
pronoun me is a dative, and the sense is ^ it appears to me,' 
' it seems to me.' Some grammarians have found a difficulty 
in the form * methinks,' from not being aware that in Anglo- 
Saxon there are two verbs, thencan, German denken, ' to 
think,' and thincan, German, dunken^ ' to seem.' It is from 
the latter verb that we have our phrase me-thinks, correspond- 
ing to the German mir dunkt, or mich dunkt, ^ it seems to me.' 
We may remark that the Germans can use, in this construc- 
tion, either. the dative mir or the accusative mich. 



ADJECTITES. 93 

167. In such phrases as ' woe is m^,' ^ woe worth the day^^ 
we have similar instances ; for they signify * woe is to me,' 
* woe be to the day.'' Here worth is a form derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon weor^an, ^ to become.' 

Much wo Worth the man, 

That misruleth his in^vitte ; 
And well ivorth Piers Plowman, 
That pursueth God in his going. 
That is to say, 

Much woG betide the man, 

That misruleth his conscience ; 
And fair befall Piers Plowman, 

That followeth God in his conduct. 

Sir Walter Scott, imitating the language of the old ballads, 
nas the following passage : — 

I little thought, when first thy rein 
I slacked upon the banks of Seine, 
That Highland eagle e'er should feed 
On thy fleet limbs, my gallant steed ! 
Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, 
That costs thy life, my gallant grey ! 

Lady of the Ldke^ i. 9. 

Some adjectives govern an objective case ; as lilze^ nigh^ 
near ^ worth: ^ It is liJce hi?n -^^ ^ This is near me '^ ^ That is 
worth twenty pounds,' Analogy would lead us to the con- 
clusion that these objectives represent dative cases ; and the 
argument is corroborated by the fact that the preposition to 
is sometimes added, like to, near to. 



Chapter VI. 
ADJECTIVES. 



168. *An Adjective is a word added ^o a substantive to 
express its quality.' (Lowth, Grammar^ p. 44.) 

This definition is founded upon the literal meaning of the 
word adjective, which is derived from the Latin ad-jectus, 
* put on,' ' added to.' 

But we must bear in mind the distinction between the 



94 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Attributive and the Predicative use of the Adjective. When 
we speak of * the good boy,' ' the red apple,' we qualify the 
words ' boy ' and ' apple.' This is called the attributive use 
of the adjective; and it was treated under the head of Quali- 
fications, §§ 4, 7, 14. But when we assert that 'the boy is 
good^^ and ^ the apple is red^' we employ the adjective as a 
predicate, and this is termed the predicative use of the adjec- 
tive. See Predicate-nominative, §§ 5, 6. 

In short, the so-called copula is, and an a^'ective, are to- 
gether equivalent to a verb ; as may be seen by comparing 
English with Latin forms : — 

is wise = sapit. 
is white = albet. 
is green = viret. 

169. But we have now to consider the substantive use of 
the Adjective. Becker says : 

^Adjectives are termed Substantive adjectives when sub- 
stantively used, that is to say, when expressing a person or 
thing; e.g.der Gute, "the good man," die Kranken, "the sick 
persons," das Schone, " the beautiful," or " the beautiful 
thing." ' — German Grammar , Fraedersdorf s Transl. § 127. 

Dr. Lowth remarks (English Grammar, p. 44, note), that 'Adjectives 
are very improperly called Nouns, for they are not the Names of things. 
The adjectives good and white are applied to the nouns man, snow, to 
express the qualities belonging to those subjects ; but the names of 
those qualities in the abstract, that is, considered in themselves, without 
being attributed to any subject, are goodness, whiteness, and these are 
Kouns or Substantives.' 

Dr. Lowth does not accurately distinguish between Nouns and Sub- 
stantives. But, to pass over that point, his argument depends upon the 
principle that nouns are names of things ; and that words which are not 
names of things are not nouns. 

But this again depends upon the meaning of the word thing. If the 
word be restricted to material or physical things, then Dr. Lowth's rule 
is not correct : for virtue, wisdom, pride, are not names of material 
things, and yet they are nouns. If, on the other hand, we extend the 
term thing, to make it include * thoughts,' ' feelings,' and ' qualities,' 
why may not an adjective be the ' name of a thing ? ' 

There seems to be no reason why an adjective should not represent 
a quality in the abstract. In Greek and Latin the neuter of the 
adjective is constantly so used. And though in Greek the adjective 
used substantively is always accompanied by the article, that is no 
warrant for supposing that the article and the adjective are together 
equal to a substantive ; or that the substantive force is due to the 
presence of the article. The case may be just the other way ; because 
the adjective is used substantively, it is capable of receiving the article. 



ADJECTIVES. 95 

Besides, the neuter adjective is constantly used as a substantive in 
Latin, where no article whatever is found. Utile and honestum are 
used by Cicero for 'expediency' and 'honour ;* and so Horace — 

Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci. 

Be Arte Poetical 34S. 

* Profit with pleasure.' 

. . . molle atqu.e facetum 
^ Virgilio annuerunt gaudentes rure Camoenae. 

Sat. I. X. 44. 
* Tenderness and grace.' 

They used to tell us at school, that with an adjective so employed, a 
substantive must be * understood; ' and as res is unfortunately feminine, 
we were bidden to supply negotium, which does not suit the meaning. 
But why must a substantive be understood ? Only because the gram- 
marians are determined not to admit the claim of the adjective. If we 
niay ' understand ' and ' supply ' words at pleasure, it is easy to prove 
anything. Even when an adjective stands as the predicate of a propo- 
sition, as ■ Snow is white,^ this is sometimes explained by grammatical 
ellipsis : as, ' Snow is a white (thing),' or * a white (substance),' or ' a 
white (object).' 

The poets, however, have no scruple. I\Iilton, in particular, is very 
fond of this construction : 

Who shall tempt with wandering feet, 
The dark unbottomed infinite abyss, 
And through the palpable obscure find out 
His uncouth way ? 

Paradise Lost, ii. 404-407. 
Dark with excessive bright thy skirts appear. 

Rid. iii. 380. 
So much of death her thoughts 
Had entertained, as dyed her cheeks with ^ale. 

Ibid. X. 1009. 
So Shakespeare : 

Call you me fair ? That ' fair ' again unsay : 

Demetrius loves your /air. happy fair ! 

Your eyes are lodestars, and your tongue's sweet air 

More tuneable than lark to shepherd's ear, 

When wheat is green, when hawthorn buds appear. 

Midsummer FigM s Dream, i. 1. 

And so Spenser, where the adjective used substantively may be taken 
in the concrete : 

* The lyon, lord of everie beast in field,' 
Quoth she, ' his princely puissance doth abate. 
And mightie "proud to humble wealce does yield.' 

Faerie Qicee^ie, I. iii. 

If it be urged that this is merely poetic license, we may quote the 
• deep ' used for the ' sea,' the waste for the ' desert,' with the philosophic 
terms, * the good,' ' the true,' ' the beautiful.' 



96 RULES AKD CAUTIONS. 



POSITION. 



170. Adjectives generally stand before the nouns which 
they qualify ; as, ^ the bright sky,' ' the distant shore.' But, 
in poetry, the order is often changed, to vary the diction, and 
to raise it above ordinary prose ; as, ^ O lady/mV,' *-my father 
dear,'' 

It is a common practice with Milton to place an adjective 
both before and after a noun ; as, 

At length a universal hubbub wild 
Of stunning sounds and voices all confused, 
Borne through the hollow dark, assaults his ear 
With loudest vehemence. 

Paradise Lost, ii. 951-4. 

Thus with the year 
Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. 

Ibid. iii. 40-4. 

So, too, he alludes to Isocrates as ^that old man eloquent,^ 
where, however, * old man ' may be considered almost one 
word, equivalent to the Latin senex : 

... as that dishonest victory 
At Chseronea, fatal to liberty, 
Bailed with report that old man eloquent. 

Sonnet ix. 

Even in prose, participles are often found after a noun : as, 
the persons named^ * the reasons mentioned,^ 

171. Chaucer uses an adjective with the indefinite article 
after a noun : as, 

A monk there was a fayre, 

Canterbury Tales ^ Prologue^ 165. 

A frere there was a wanton and a mery, — Ibid, 208. 
And, in more modern English, it is not unusual for one 
adjective to precede the noun, while others foUow connected 
by and : as, 

A dark prince, and infinitely suspicious* — Bacon* 



ADJECTIVES. 97 

When the adjective or participle is itself qualified it follows 
the noun : as, 

Out flew 
Millions of flaming swords drawn from the thighs 
Of mighty cherubim. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 664. 

172. Wlien two numerals qualify one noun, the ordinal 
adjective generally stands first, and the cardinal second : as, 
' the last three chapters of John,' ' the first two of Matthew.' 
Strictly, there cannot be ^ three last chapters,' or ^ two Jirst 
chapters.' And yet the terms ^ three last ' and ^ two first,' 
might occur in another construction, and with a different 
meaning. For instance, if there were three classes in a school, 
the boys at the bottom of each might be termed the ^ three 
last.' Or if there were two classes, the boys at the head of each 
might be styled the ^ two first.' 

DEaEEES OF CO:P^IPAEISON. 

173- English adjectives have no changes to express gender, 
number, or case ; but they undergo changes, to denote De- 
grees of Comparison. 

There are three Degrees of Comparison, in English : 

1. The Positive, which gives the word in its simplest 

form ; as bright, 

2. The Comparative, which ascribes a quality in a higher 

degree ; as brighter. 

3. The Superlative, which ascribes a quality in the ; 

highest degree ; as brightest. 

We have two methods of denoting comparison in adjec- 
tives ; one, derived from the Anglo-Saxon, by adding termi- 
nations to the positive ; the other, borrowed from the Norman- 
French, by prefixing to the positive the adverbs 7Jiore and 
most. 

Formation of Comparison by adding Terminations. 

First Rule. In Adjectives, which end in a consonant, the 
comparative is formed by adding -er, and the superlative by 
adding -est to the positive ; as bright, bright-er, bright-est. 

Ohs. — When an adjective ends in -e, the vowel e of the termi- 
nation -cr, -esty is dropped, or, practically, -r and -st are 
added to the positive : as wise^ wise-r, wisest. 
F 



98 nULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Second Rule, — When the positive ends in c?, g^ or f, preceded 
by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled in form- 
ing the comparative and superlative : as, 

red redder reddest. 

big higger biggest. 

hot hotter hottest. 

But if the cZ, ^, or t be preceded by another consonant, or 

by more than one vowel, the final consonant is not doubled : 

as, 

kind kinder kindest, 

neat neater neatest. 

Third Rule. — When the positive ends in ?/, preceded by a 
consonant, the y is changed to i before -er and -est : as, 
lovely loveli-er loveli-est. 

These rules are applicable to adjectives of one or two 
syllables, which very commonly are of Anglo-Saxon deriva- 
tion. With adjectives containing more than two syllables, it 
is usual to prefix more and most. The Germans, indeed, 
append the terminations -^r and -est to all adjectives, no 
matter how many syllables they may contain. But in Eng- 
lish, custom has ruled that the terminations -er and -est shall 
be restricted to adjectives of one and two syllables. 

174. In the Indo-European family of languages, a few ad- 
jectives exhibit peculiarities of comparison : and it is curious 
to remark that these adjectives, in the several languages, cor- 
respond in meaning. For our purpose, it will be sufficient to 
compare the English with the Latin. 

good 

bonus " 

bad 

malus 

much 
or 

many 

multus 

little 

parvus 

Some grammarians maintain that these forms as, for example, 
good and better^ are derived from distinct roots. Dr. Latham 
says that good has no comparative or superlative : and that 
better has no positive. — Latham, English Grammar^ § 110. 

Professor Key, in an able treatise appended to his Alphabety 



better 
melior 
worse 


best. 

optimus. 

worst. 


pejor 


pessimus. 


more 


most. 


(plus) 
less 


plurimus. 
least. 


minor 


minimus. 



ADJECTIVES. 99 

endeavours to prove that ^ good, better, best,' ^ bonus, melior, 
optimus,' owe their variety of form to two principles : 
(1) the difference of pronunciation, called * dialect ; ' (2) 
those euphonic changes which grow out of the approxima- 
tion of particular sounds. Professor Key's arguments are 
highly ingenious; I wish I could add that they are equally 
convincing. 

175. The following peculiarities of comparison deserve notice, 
especially in reference to the use of the termination -most : 

aft after aftermost. 

far farther farthest, farthermost. 

fore former first, foremost. 

forth further furthest, furthermost. 

hind hinder hindmost, hindermost. 

in inner inmost, innermost. 

late later, latter latest, last. 

out ■ outer, utter utmost, outermost. 

up upper upmost, uppermost. 

Grimm doubts whether such words as ^ after-most,' ^ in- 
most ' are formed immediately by the addition of -most. He 
finds in Gothic and in Anglo-Saxon superlative forms aftuma, 
innema, and, what he considers double superlatives, wftemest^ 
innemest. According to this view, both the letter ??i, and the 
termination -est, are marks of the superlative degree. Then 
he thinks that the English forms ^ aftermost,' ^ inmost,' &c., 
have arisen by corruption, or by false analogy. To use his 
o^vn expression, the English termination -most in these words 
is ' an unorganic -most,'' See Grimm, Deutsche GrammatiTc, 
vol. iii. pp. 628-631 : and compare Latham, English Language j 
§ 481, English Grammar ^ § 117. 

176. We must beware of supposing that comparison neces- 
sarily involves the notion of greater or less ; for in the sentence, 
* He is as tall as I am,' we have as truly a comparison as in 
the sentence, * He is taller than I am.' In other words, there 
may be a comparison of equality ; and in the Welsh language 
there is a fourth degree of comparison, with a distinct form, 
to express the relation which we denote by prefixing as or so 
to the positive. See Eowland, Welsh Grammar^ § 149. 

Hence, before we make use of a comparison, involving the 
notion of greater or less, we should consider whether the 
quality expressed by the adjective admits of degrees. Strictly 
speaking, perfect is an absolute term : that which is not ^ per- 

f2 



100 RULES AND CAUTIONS, 

feet' is 'imperfect/ and althougli a thing may be brought 
nearer to perfection than it was before, it cannot properly be 
called ' more perfect.' Yet Addison writes : 

Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all 
our senses. — Spectator ^ No, 411. 

Similarly extreme is ' uttermost,' and yet many persons write 
most extreme, \h2it i^ literally 'most uttermost.' In the fol- 
lowing passages we find extremest : 

While the extremest parts of the earth were meditating a 
submission. — Atterbury, Sermons, i. 4. 
That on the sea's extremest border stood. 

Addison, Travels, 

177- Cobbett well remarks, {English Grammar, § 220) : — 
' But our ears are accustomed to the adverbs of exaggeration. 
Some writers deal in these to a degree that tires the ear and 
offends the understanding. With them every thing is exces- 
sively or immensely or extremely or vastly or surprisingly or 
wonderfully or abundantly, or the like. The notion of such 
writers is, that these words give strength to what they are 
saying. This is a great error. Strength must be found in 
the thought, or it will never be found in the words. Big- 
sounding words, without thoughts corresponding, are effort 
without effect.' 

178- The word chief, derived from the French chef, ' head,' 
denotes primacy ; and as there can be no more than one 
* first ' in the same series, it is not strictly correct to say 
chiefest. Yet we read : 

Whosoever of you will be the chiefest, shall be servant 
of all. — Mark x. 44. 

One of the first and chief est instances of prudence. 

Atterbury, Sermons^ iv. 10. 

But first and chief est with thee bring 
Him that yon soars on golden wing. 
Guiding the fiery-wheeled throne, 
The Cherub Contemplation. 

Milton, II Penseroso, 

179. When we are comparing things, or classes of things, it 
is necessary to consider whether our comparison involves the 
number two, or more than two. 

If we compare two things, or two classes of things ; or, if 



ADJECTIVES. 101 

one individual is contrasted with the rest of a class, we use 
the comparative degree : as, 

An acre in Middlesex is better than a principality in 

Utopia. 
He is wiser than all the rest put together. 
But if we mean to express that one of a class, more than two, 
possesses a quality in the highest degree, we employ the super- 
lative: as, 

This was the noblest Eoman of them all. 

Julius Ccesar, v. 4. 

180. As we have seen, there are two methods, in English, of 
denoting the comparative and the superlative degree ; and this 
is one proof, among others, that English is a mixed language, in 
its grammar, as well as in its vocabulaiy. For the Anglo- 
Saxon, in comparisons, varied the adjective by change of ter- 
mination only, and not by adverbs corresponding to moi^e and 
77105^, while the Norman-French made use of adverbs. The 
English employs both methods ; the latter uniformly with long 
words. (Compare §§ 138 — 140.) 

Now some of our older writers, when they wish to be 
emphatic, employ double comparatives or superlatives ; so 
Shakespeare : 

Timon will to the woods ; where he shall find 
The unkindest beast moi^e kinder than mankind. 

Timon of Athens, iv. 1. 
This was the most unkindest cut of all. 

^ Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. 

181. When both forms are used in the same phrase, it is 
better to put the adjective ending in -er or -est first, and then 
the adjective combined with more or most; as. 

He was the wisest and most learned of them all. 

Otherwise it is desirable to repeat the article : — 

He was the most learned, and the wisest of them all. 

182. In using comparatives and superlatives, we ought to 
take care that the construction be consistent with itself 

When a superlative is used, the class which fiu:nishes the 
objects of comparison, and which is introduced by of, should 
always include the thing compared. Yet Milton, imitating a 
Greek idiom, writes : 

Adam the goodliest man, of men since born 
His sons ; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. 

Paradise Lost, iv. 323. 



102 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

If these lines be construed literally, Adam is one of his own 
sons, and Eve is one of her own daughters. 

Some writers use the superlative, when only two objects 
are implied : as, 

The question is not whether a good Indian or bad 
Englishman be most happy, but which state is most 
desirable, supposing virtue and reason to be the same 
in both. — Johnson. 

Here, others would say ' be the more happy,' ^ is the more 
desirable.' And, no doubt, the comparative degree is prefer- 
able, because two individuals and two states are compared. 

183. The following is an example of wrong construction 
in the comparative : 

This noble nation hath of all others admitted fewer cor- 
ruptions. — Swift. 

The construction is not consistent with itself; for the 
phrase ^ of all others ' would lead us to expect a superlative 
degree ; but even that would not mend the sentence, because 
* this nation ' is here confounded with * all others.' 
The writer meant to say : 

This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than 
any other. 

So here : 

The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the 
soul of any other. — Guardian^ No. 19. 

First of all, the phrase * of any other ' is most unfortunately 
placed ; for it might mean ' the soul of any other person.' 
But the chief fault is, that covetousness is classed among all 
other vices; and is then said to enter the deepest of those 
vices. 

The writer might have said : 

The vice of covetousness enters deeper into the soul, than 
any other. 
or. 

Of all viceSy covetousness enters deepest into the soul. 

184. In comparisons of eqiiality, the second clause is intro- 
duced by as ; in comparisons of greater or less, the second 
clause is introduced by than. Sometimes awkwardness re- 
sults from coupling these two kinds of phrase in one construc- 
tion : as, 



ADJECTIVES. 103 

Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old or even 
olde?^ than tradition? — Bolingbroke, Essays^ iv. 19, 

The words ' as old' and ^ older' cannot have a common con- 
struction : the one should be followed by as^ the other by 
than. If Bolingbroke had said * as old as tradition and even 
older^ there would have been no error. — See Campbell, 
Philosophy of Rhetoric ^ pp. 182 — 187. 

185. We have seen, § 64, that the word than^ commonly 
called a conjunction, is a later form of the adverb then. 
Hence, ' this is better than that ' means, * first this is better ; 
then that [is good].' 

The same word than is used after other, rather, else, other- 
wise, and all forms of speech implying comparison : 
Ye watch, like God, the rolling hours, 
With larger other eyes than ours, 
To make allowance for us all. 

Tennyson, In Memoriam, 50. 

Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which 
our thoughts most readily assume. — Blair, Lecture 10. 
When a comparative is used with than, the thing compared 
must always be excluded from the class of things with which 
it is compared. Take this sentence : 

Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 

But Joseph was one of those very children. Therefore, if he 
loved Joseph more than all, he loved Joseph more than his 
other children, and Joseph to boot. If we read ^ than his 
other children ' or * than all his other children,' there could be 
no room for objection. 

The noun or pronoun that follows than, will be in the 
nominative or objective according to the construction of the 
subordinate clause. Thus, 

I esteem you more than they, 
means, 

But, 

means, 



I esteem you more than they [esteem you]. 
I esteem you more than them. 



I esteem you more than [I esteem] them. 

186. Dr. Priestley seems to have had a notion that than, in 
some cases, is a preposition ; and this view is very properly 
rejected by Dr. Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric, pp. 182, 
183. 



104 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Yet there is one construction in which the objective has 
been so commonly used after tlian^ that we can hardly refuse 
to accept the anomaly, though it cannot be justified by rule. 
In the best authors we find such phrases as these : 

The Duke of Argyle, than whom no man was more hearty 

in the cause. — Hume. 
Cromwell, than whom no man was better skilled in 
artifice. — Hume, 

Pope, than ivhom few men had more vanity. — Johnson, 
Dr. Lowth says, {Grammar^ p. 154) : 

* The relative who, having reference to no verb or preposi- 
tion understood, but only to its antecedent, when it follows 
than is always in the objective case; even though the pro- 
noun, if substituted in its place, would be in the nominative ; 
as, 

Beelzebub, than whom, 
Satan except, none higher sat. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, ii. 299. 

which, if we substitute the pronoun, would be, 
' none higher sat than heJ* 

It is evident that there is no reason for using the objective 
in this construction. I suspect that this peculiarity has re- 
sulted from confounding the English idiom with the Latin, 
where the comparative is followed by the ablative quo. In 
Latin quo means ^ than who,' and than is expressed by the 
ablative. Our classical scholars, writing in English, have 
supplied than, and yet, with the Latin syntax in their minds, 
have retained the oblique case. The influence of Latin idioms 
upon English style would form an interesting subject of 
inquiry ; and I think that when boys are translating upon 
paper, they should not be allowed to follow the original so 
closely as to violate the English idiom. * Which when Caesar 
saw,' and similar phrases, are not English. They may pass in 
oral construing, but not in written translation. 



PRONOUNS. 105 

Chapter VIL 

PRONOUNS. 

187. A Pro-noun is defined as a word used instead of a 
noun. 

Buttmann, however, says, / Pronouns cannot be so precisely 
defined ^s not to admit many words whicli may also be con- 
sidered as adjectives.' — Angus, Handhooh of the English Tongue^ 
p. 179. 

Grammarians are not all agreed upon the meaning of the 
word noun. According to some it comprises both substan- 
tives and adjectives ; and those who take this view distinguish 
' nouns substantive ' and * nouns adjective.' 

To avoid controversy, we have uniformly used the word 
noun in the sense of a ^ noun substantive ; ' but we shall ex- 
tend the t^rm * pronoun ' to comprise ^ pronoims substantive,' 
and ^ pronouns adjective.' 

Pronouns are divided into the following classes :— 

1. Personal. 

2. Possessive. 

3. Demonstrative. 

4. Interrogative. 

5. Eelative. 

6. Reflective. 

7. Reciprocal. 

We shall consider, in a separate chapter, words which have 
been variously termed Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal 
Adjectives. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

188. There are three persons which may form the subject 
of any discourse : 

1. The person who speaks, may speak of himself. 

2. He may speak of the person to whom he addresses 

himself. 

3. He may speak of some other person, or of some thing. 

These are called, respectively, the first, second, and third 
persons. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time 
the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; 
hence their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be 

f3 



106 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns ; but the 
third person or thing spoken of, being absent and in many 
respects unknown, needs to be marked by a distinction of 
gender. Accordingly the pronoun of the third person has, in 
the singular, three genders ; but in the plural, we have only 
one set of forms for all the genders. 

189- In pronouns, we have some remains of the variations used 
in Anglo-Saxon. Thus in the First Personal Pronoun, we have, 

Singular. Plural. 
J^om., I we 

Gen,j mine our 

Dat,, me us 

Ace, me us 

We shall remark upon the genitives mine and our under the 
head of Possessive Pronouns. 

The old dative me appears in such forms as me- seems, me- 
thinks, meaning * it seems to me,' ^ it appears to me.' For 
here * thinks ' is derived not from thencan, * to think,* but 
from thincan, ^ to seem.' 

The same dative is frequently used as a secondary objec- 
tive : ^ Give me the book,' ' Tell me the story.' In like manner 
the old dative us is employed as a secondary objective : as, 
* He gave us good words.' 

190. In the Second Personal Pronoun we have the follow- 
ing forms : — 

Singular. Plural, 

Nom.j thou ye (you) 

Gen., thine your 

Dat,, thee you 

Ace, thee you 

In former times in England, tJiou was used as a mark of 
endearment among relatives ; and the corresponding pronoun 
is still so used in France, Germany, and other countries. 
Perhaps one reason why it has gone out of common use with 
us, is that being adopted by the Society of Friends, and used 
by them on all occasions, it became a token of sectarian dis- 
tinction. 

But, beside expressing affection, it was used, in old times, 
to denote familiarity ; and the transition from familiarity to 
contempt is soon made : 

If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not be 
amiss. — Twelfth Night, iii. 2. 



PRONOUNS. 107 

We shall discuss thine and your under the head of Posses- 
sive Pronouns. 

Thee and yoiiy old forms of the dative, are commonly used 
as secondary objectives. 

Thou and ye are very commonly used in solemn language, 
and in poetry ; 

Thmi sun, said T, lair light ! 
And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales ! Ye rivers, woods, and plains ! 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell if ye saw, how came I thus, how here ? 

Milton, Paradise Lost, viii. 273-7. 

It is a common error with young writers to begin by using 
thou in the early part of a sentence ; and then, forgetting the 
commencement, to slide into you ; and sometimes even to mix 
up ^ thou ' with ^ your/ or ' you ' with ^ thy ' in the same 
clause. 

In poetry this licence is sometimes taken : as, 
I prythee give me back my heart, 

Since I can not have thine ; 
For if from yours you will not part. 
Why then should'st thou have mine ? 

Sir John Suckling. 

In older English ye was the nominative of the plural, and 
you the objective : as, * I know you not, whence ye are.' But 
the forms were confounded, and in Shakespeare we find ye em- 
ployed as an objective : so. 

The more shame for ye ; holy men I thought ye, 

Henry VIII., iii, I. 

On the stage it is very common for actors to utter ye in the 
objective, where the copies have you. They seem to think it 
more rhetorical. 

191. The forms of the Third Personal Pronoun are made up 
from the Anglo-Saxon personal he, heo, hit, and the demon- 
strative se, seo, thcet. We have, 





Si 


ngular. 




Plural. 


Masc, 




Fern, 


JSfeut. 


M, F, N, 


Nom, he 




she 


it . . 


. . they 


Gen, his 




her 


its . . 


. . their 


Dat. him 




her 


it . . 


. them 


Ace, him 




her 


it . . 


. them. 



In Old English the neuter nominative was hit^ and the neuter 



108 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

genitive his. This neuter form of the genitive constantly 
occurs in our English Bible : as, 

The fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is 

in itself, — Gen, i. 11. 
It shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel.— 

Gen. iii. 15. 
If the salt have lost his savour. — Matt, v. 13. 

The word its does not occur in the original edition of the 
English Bible. In one passage, where our modern copies 
have its^ 

That which groweth of its own accord — Leviticus xxv. 5. 
the original copy reads, 

That which groweth of it own accord. 
(See Alford, The Queen's English, p. 7, note.) 
Shakespeare often uses his in the neuter : as, 

And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world, 
Did lose his lustre. 

Julius Ccesavy i. 2. 
In such a time as this it is not meet 
That every nice offence should bear his comment. 

Ibid. iv. 3. 
But he also has its : as, 

Heaven grant us its peace, but not the King of Hungary's.. 

Measure for Measure, i. 2. 
Before the form its came into full use, there seems to have 
been a period of transition, when it was used as a * genitive by 
juxta-position : ' thus. 

It knighthood and it friends. 

Ben Jonson, Silent Woman, ii. 3. 
Go to it grandam, child . . . and it grandam will give it 
a plum. — Shakespeare, King John, ii. 1. 

It will be observed that the forms of the plural thet/, their, 
them, wherein th is found, are derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
demonstrative. 

192. In nouns, there is no difference in form between the 
nominative and objective cases ; but as in pronouns such a 
distinction exists, we must be careful to observe it, especially 
in compound sentences. ^ She is as tall as me,' should be, ' as 
tall as /,' meaning ^ as I am.' And so where the poet Thom- 
son says. 



PRONOUNS. .^. 109 

The nations not so blest as fA^^, ' ' 

Must in their turn to tyrants fall ; 
Whilst thou shalt flourish great and free, 

The dread and envy of them all : 

he makes ' thee ' rhyme with ' free ; ' but his grammar is wrong ; 
he should have said * as thou^^ because he means * as thou art.' 
So again, no one would think of saying * let / go,' instead 
of saying * let me go ; ' and yet many persons think it right to 
say, * let you and I go.' Charles Dickens systematically adopts 
this construction, and he may think that it is correct. And so 
Southey : 

Let you and / endeavour to improve the inclosure of the 
Carr. — The Doctor. 

But a little reflection must convince us, that if it is correct to 
say * let me go,' the addition of * you ' can have no power to 
turn an objective into a nominative construction. Besides, 
in this case, let is properly a verb in the imperative mood, go 
is an infinitive dependent upon that imperative ; and the con- 
struction is, ^ grant me to go,' or ^ allow me to go.' Similarly, 
' let you and me go ' means ^ grant you and me to go.' If, in- 
deed, we could suppose that introduced, the case would be 
quite altered : ^ grant that you and I go ; ' but such a phrase 
as * let that ' is unwarranted, and is barely intelligible. 

193. The construction after hut is more doubtful. The word 
was originally a preposition he-utan, * by-out,' akin in signifi- 
cation to with'Utan, ' with-out : ' 

For warld's wrak but welfare nought avails. 

Dunbar, 
that is, * without well-being.' 
So Gawin Douglas, 

Admonist us but mare delay to ga. Book 4. 
' without more delay.' 

Now if we admit that * but ' still retains its force as a pre- 
position, we may say, ^ there was no one present but me,' that 
is, * beside me.' If on the other hand we do not allow the 
prepositional force of ^ but,' we must consider ^ but ' as nothing 
else than a conjunction, and say, ' there was no one present 
but I,' that is, ^ but I was present.' 
So Shakespeare : 

Which none but heaven, and you, and I shall hear. 

King John, i. 1. 
And so Coleridge : 

Which none may hear but she and thou, — See § 473. 



110 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

194. The rules that regulate the use of a verb, in the 
singular or in the plural, after two or more nouns, or after a 
collective noun, apply also to the use of pronouns in the 
singular, or in the plural ; as, 

Every one must judge of his own feelings. 

But as *■ every one ' must include women as well as men, 
and as the singular preserves the distinction of gender, there is 
a tendency to avoid the difficulty by using the plural : 
If an ox gore a man or woman, so that they die. 

Exodus xxi. 28. 
Not on outward charms alone should man or woman 
build their pretensions to please. — Opie. 

In such instances, Cobbett would repeat the pronoun, in 
different genders, in the singular : ' so that he or she die,' 
* build his or her pretensions ; ' for he argues that, however 
disagreeable repetition may be, it is better than obscurity or 
inaccuracy. 

This point is not omitted in the parody upon Cobbett's 
style in the Rejected Addresses : 

' I take it for granted that every intelligent man, woman, 
and child, to whom I address myself, has stood severally 
and respectively in Little Eussell Street, and cast their, 
his, her, and its eyes on the outside of this building 
before they paid their money to view the inside.' 

Hampshire Farmer's Address, 



CAUTIONS. 

195- In using pronouns we should constantly remember to 
what words they refer ; and examine whether the reference be 
consistent with other parts of the sentence, as well as with 
the clause in which the pronoun itself is found. For want of 
proper attention errors frequently occur in the use of pronouns. 
Take, for example, the following sentence from Addison : 

' There are, indeed, but very few who know how to be idle 
and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that are not 
criminal ; every diversion they take is at the expense of some 
one virtue, or other, and their very first step out of business is 
into vice or folly.' — Spectator ^ No. 411. 

Of this passage Dr. Blair says {Rhetoric^ Lecture 20) : — 
* Nothing can be more elegant, or more finely turned than 
this sentence. It is neat, clear, and musical. We could hardly 



PRONOUNS. Ill 

alter one word, or displace one member, without spoiling it. 
Few sentences are to be found more finished or more happy.' 

But to what persons does the pronoun they relate in that 
sentence ? Surely not to the good * few ' who know how to 
be innocent, but to the wicked 'many ' who plunge into vice. 
As Cobbett justly remarks {Grammar, § 176) the meaning of 
the sentence is this : ' that but few persons know how to be 
idle and innocent; that few persons have a relish of any plea- 
sures that are not criminal; that every diversion these few 
persons take is at the expense of some one virtue or other, 
and that the very first step of these few persons out of business 
is into vice or folly.' Hence he adds, ' the sentence says 
precisely the contrary of what the author meant ; or rather, 
the whole is perfect nonsense. All this arises from the misuse 
of the pronoun they. If, instead of this word, the author had 
put people in general, or most people, or most men, or any word, 
or words, of the same meaning, all would have been right.' 

Yet I have often asked persons to examine this sentence ; 
and at the first reading scarcely any one has been able to 
detect an error. We are so accustomed to use they in a general 
sense, that the grammatical reference to the ' few ' does not 
readily occur to the mind. A critic, with whom I conversed 
on one occasion, undertook to defend Addison against Cobbett, 
on the ground that the pronoun they is here used indefinitely, 
like on in French, and man in German. The defence is more 
ingenious than sound. It is better candidly to admit that 
Addison tripped; and that Dr. Blair, being occupied with 
the harmony of the sentence, did not observe the error. In 
his remarks upon this passage, Cobbett is very droll ; but he 
is too severe upon Dr. Blair. 

196- Where several persons are spoken of in the same 
sentence, the reference to each is sometimes doubtful, especially 
if the reader is not well acquainted with the matter in question. 
Take this passage from Sir W. Blackstone : 

For, the custom of the manor has, in both cases, so far 
superseded the will of the lord, that, provided the 
services be performed, or stipulated for by fealty, he 
cannot, in the first instance, refuse to admit the heir 
of his tenant, upon his death ; nor, in the second, can 
he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. 

Kerr's Blackstone, ii. 94. 
This means that * the lord cannot, in the first instance, refiise 
to admit the heir of his tenant, in case of that tenant's death ; 



112 UTILES AND CAUTIONS. 

nor, in the second, can he remove his present tenant, during 
the lifetime of that tenant.' 

197. When a personal pronoun refers to a collective noun, 
we must be consistent in our usage. We may generally take 
our choice, whether we mean to consider the collective noun 
as singular or plural ; but having once made our election, we 
ought to persevere in the same : we must not mix up together 
* they ' and * its,' or * it' and ' their.' 

198. When two nouns in the singular are coupled by the 
conjunction and, the pronoun referring to them both ought, 
strictly, to be in the plural. But ' double-barrelled ' substan- 
tives, as Sydney Smith terms them, are often taken as making 
one idea ; for example. Dr. Blair says of Lord Shaftesbury : 

He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery ; 
but he is far from being happy in iL — Rhetoric, 
Lecture 19. 

It may be argued, that if wit and raillery are different things, 
the pronoun should have been them : * he is far from being 
happy in them,'' If, on the other hand, wit and raillery are 
the same, one of the terms is unnecessary. See Cobbett, 
Grammar^ § 179. 

This, no doubt, is the strict law; and in composition we 
ought to be severe critics of our own work. But in the 
writings of the last century we may find scores of passages 
parallel to that of Dr. Blair. 

Wlien, however, nouns in the singular take the alternative 
conjunction or^ the pronoun must be in the singular : as, 
' when he shoots a partridge, a pheasant, or a woodcock, he 
gives 2^ away.' 

IT. 

199. This convenient little word is constantly misused by 
careless writers. We ought never to use it, without being 
quite sure that we know what we are doing, and that our con- 
^ruction is accurate. 

We shall examine the causes of error, and try to discover 
some useful cautions. 

1. The pronoun it is often used to represent a person or 
persons unknown, where the gender and the number are ahke 
uncertain. Thus when we ask, ^ Who is it ? ' the answer may 
be, * it is I,' ^ it is he,' ' it is she,' or * it is they.' In these 
sentences, as the verb stands between two nominatives, it 
might, strictly, agree with either of them. In Anglo-Saxon 



PRONOUNS. 113 

we find ic sylf hit eojn, ^ I self it am ' Q it ig myself), Imke 
xxiv. 39. Chaucer says * it am 1/ and the Germans say * es 
sind Manner,' * it are men,' where we say * there are men.' 
In all such cases we make the verb agree with ity no matter 
what person or number may follow. 

Some critics have entertained doubts about the propriety of 
this usage. Dr. Johnson says, ' This mode of speech, though 
used by good authors, and supported by the il y a oi the 
French, has yet an appearance of barbarism.' 

Dr. Lowth thinks that the phrases which occur in the fol- 
lowing examples, though pretty common and authorised by 
custom, are yet somewhat defective. 

^Tis they^ that give the great Atrides' spoils; 
^Tis they J that still renew Ulysses' toils. 

Prior. 
'T25 two or three^ my lord, that bring you word 
Macduff is fled to England. 

3Iacheth, iv. 1. 

200. Dr. Campbell, in reviewing the question, observes, 
that the indefinite use of the pronoun it may have a reference, 

1. To persons as well as to things. 

2. To the first person and the second, as well as to the 

third. 

3. To a plural as well as to a singular. 

Against the first application to persons as well as to things, 
neither Dr. Johnson nor Dr. Lowth seems to have any objec- 
tion ; and both these critics speak with some hesitation about 
the other two. Yet, in the opinion of Dr. Campbell, if one be 
censurable, they are all censurable; and if one be proper, 
they are all proper. For the distinction of genders is as 
essential as the distinction of persons, or tkat of numbers. 

Besides, where a personal pronoun must be used indefinitely, 
as when we ask a question about a person or persons un- 
known, we are obliged to use one person for all the persons, 
one gender for all the genders, and one number for both num- 
bers. Now, in English, custom has chosen, for this indefinite 
use, the third person, the neuter gender, and the singular 
number — ^namely, the pronoun it. 




\v 



114 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

justified in beginning tliat answer by the same indefinite 
form, which appeared in the question. The words it is are 
consequently warrantable here, whatever be the words which 
ought to follow, whether / or lie^ we or they. 

And if there be nothing faulty in the expression, when it is 
an answer to a question actually proposed, there can be no 
fault in it when used absolutely. Nor is there any reason 
why one number may not as well serve indefinitely for both 
numbers, as one person for all the persons, and one gender 
for all the genders. 

202. Writers have been more scrupulous about the diiFer- 
ence of number, in this construction, than about the variations 
of person or gender ; probably because they disliked to use a 
verb in the singular followed by a plural nominative. In 
order to avoid this supposed incongruity, the translators of 
the Bible have employed the unusual phrase * they are they ' 
for * it is they : * 

Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have 

eternal life ; and they are they which testify of me. — 

John V. 39. 

In the other applications they have not hesitated to use the 
indefinite form zY, as in this expression, * It is /, be not afraid.' 
(^Matt. xiv. 27.) Yet the phrase * they are they ' in the first 
quotation is no better English than * I am I ' would have been 
in the second. 

A convenient mode of speech, which custom has established, 
and for which there is frequent occasion, ought not to be 
hastily given up, especially when the language does not fur- 
nish us with another equally simple to supply its place. — See 
Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric^ pp. 208-211. 

203. — 2. Frequently, the pronoun it refers, not to a single 
noun, but to a phrase, or to a sentence : as, * Walking before 
breakfast is healthy, and he is very fond of eV,' i. e. * walking 
before breakfast : ' ^ I told them so before, and they know itj 
i. e. ^ that I told them so before.' 

We should take care that the reference be clear ; and there 
is risk of error, if, in the same sentence, we have one it refer- 
ring to a single noun, and another it referring to a phrase. 

204. — 3. The pronoun it is frequently employed as Sifore- 
runner, to represent a coming phrase or sentence : as, 
It is pleasant to ride on horseback. 
It is true that the war is over. 



PRONOUNS. 115 

Here the meaning is ' to ride on horseback is pleasant,' 
* that the war is over is true.' In this construction subordi- 
nate clauses are commonly introduced by that^ but other par- 
ticles, as if J whetJie?', may be used in the same way : 
It is uncertain if he will come. 
It is doubtful luhether he will go. 

205. We may easily see that the various references of this 
pronoun are a frequent cause of ambiguity ; for we are often 
unable to tell which of the several possible references a writer 
has in view, when he uses the word. For instance : 

There are so many advantages of sj^eaking one's own 
language well, and being a master of itj that let a 
man's calling be what it will, it cannot but be worth 
while taking some pains in it. 

The first it refers to ^ language ; ' the second to ^ calling ; ' 
the third is a forerunner and stands for ^ taking some pains ; ' 
the fourth goes back to * language.' 

206. We should avoid using it in relation to different 
nouns in the same sentence ; and when we are obliged to 
employ it in reference to a preceding noun, we should not in- 
troduce a forerunning it in addition. 

So in this passage : 

The best way in the world for a man to seem to be any- 
thing is really to be what he would seem to be. 
Besides that it is many times as troublesome to make 
good the pretence of a good quality as to have it ; and 
if a man have it not, it is ten to one but he is dis- 
covered to want itj and then all his pains and labours 
to seem to have it are lost. 



POSSESSIVE PKONOUNS. 

207. Possessive pronouns have arisen from the genitive 
cases of the personal, or of other pronouns, used as adjectives. 
Thus, for example, in Anglo-Saxon, mm, the genitive case of 
the first personal pronoun ic, is used as an adjective and 
regularly declined : masc. mm, fem. mine, neut. min. Simi- 
larly, in Latin, cujus, the genitive of the relative pronoun, is 
declined like an adjective, cujus, cuja, cujum\ as in Yirgil, 
Cujum pecus ? an Melibosi ? 

Eclogue^ iii, 1. 



116 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

We sHall not consider the pronoun whose in this place ; 
iDut we shall confine our attention to those possessive pro- 
nouns which have arisen from personals or demonstratives. 
And first we remark that many of the possessive pronouns in 
English have two forms ; as my, mine ; thy^ thine ; her^ hers ; 
our^ ours ; your^ yours ; their ^ theirs. 

As a general rule, the shorter form is used before a noun ; 
and the longer form when no noun follows. 

Of his and its there are no second forms : we may say ' that 
is his book,' and ^that book is his.'' But instead of 'that is 
my book,' we cannot say ' that book is my ; ' but, * that book 
is mme.' 

208. It will be necessary to consider these forms more 
particularly. 

Mine is from the Anglo-Saxon min-^ it is sometimes used 
as an adjective, and sometimes it retains the force of a geni- 
tive. In the sentence * that book is mine^ it is an open ques- 
tion, whether * mine ' is the genitive of the personal, or an 
adjective. In early English, the true genitive force is ex- 
hibited, in such phrases as ' maugre myne^ i. e. * in spite of 
me^ used by Robert de Brunne. 

As we trace the history of the language, we find the form 
KYiine^ used adjectively, still remaining before nouns beginning 
with a vowel, or with the letter h\ as ' myn helthe ' for * my 
health : ' and so, 

Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn, but I shaU have 
my pocket picked ? — \st Hen. IV. iii. 3. 

But it became customary, before nouns beginning with a con- 
sonant, to use the shortened form my. In the following 
passage both forms are used, one before a consonant, the 
other before a vowel : 

Mine eye also shall see my desire upon mine enemies, and 

mine ears shall hear my desire of the wicked that rise 

up against me. — Psalm xcii. 11. 

In modern English, mine is the form employed as a predi- 
cate, when used absolutely, that is without a following noun : 
as, * that book is mine.'' 

It also occurs in such idiomatic phrases as * that is a book 
of mine^ which I explain in the same way as the sentence 
* that is a play of Shakespeare's,' namely, that we have a double 
form of the genitive. (See § 141.) Grammarians expound the 
idiom thus ; ' that is a book of my books ; ' but I believe that 



PRONOUNS. 117 

this is an aflerthouglit ; and that the old genitive mine was 
used with the preposition of, by a confusion of the two kinds 
of genitive. 

209. Thine, Similar remarks apply to this word. It is 
derived from the Anglo-Saxon thin, the genitive of the second 
personal pronoun thu, ' thou.' Its true character as a genitive 
is seen in the old English phrase ' maugre thin/ i. e., * in spite 
of thee,'' (Havelok the Dane.) In modern English, it stands 
alone as a predicate : , ^ that book is thine ; ' and in the phrase 
' that :s a book of thine.^ Before nouns, where it has the 
force of an adjective, it is shortened to thy ; as * that is thy 
book.' 

210. Our is from the Anglo-Saxon ure, genitive plural of 
iCj Vhich was also used as an adjective. 

In Old English we find oure : as, 

Gif he passeth with honour 
Oure is the deshonour. 

Kyng Alisaunder. 



If he passes with honour 
Our is the dishonoiu:. 

Oure is the maistry of the felde. 



Ibid. 



That is, 
And so, 

That is, 

Our is the mastery of the field. 

In niodem Jinglish our is used before a noun ; but when the 
word is used absolutely, it takes the form ours, where the s 
is said to represent the possessive case. If so, we have here a 
^ort of double genitive ; for our itself is derived from a genitive 
plural, and if s is the mark of possession, that is equivalent to 
a genitive. 

In some counties of England the form ourn may be heard ; 
this is probably formed by the adjective termination en, our en 
contracted to ourn, Etymologically, ourn is just as good a 
word as ours ; perhaps even better ; and if it were only custo- 
mary, we should think it quite correct. 

211. Your is from the Anglo-Saxon'' eower, the genitive 
plural of the second personal pronoun. I cannot find any ad- 
jective form of this word in Anglo-Saxon. In Old EngUsh it 
is used absolutely, as a predicate : so Chaucer, 



118 



EULES AND CAUTIONS. 



Fro that blisMl hour 
That I you swore to be all freely your. 
And again, 

I am and will be your in will and herte. 

In modern English, when the word is used absolutely, that is 
without a following noun, the form of the double genitive 
yours is employed : as ^ I am yours ; ' and there seems to be 
no necessity for using the apostrophe in these cases, your'^s ; at 
all events, the best writers do not introduce it. 

The adjective form yourn occurs in some provincial dialects : 
as ^ that's none o' yourn.' 

212. His is from the Anglo-Saxon A?/5, or Ms^ the genitive 
of the masculine he and of the neuter hit. In Anglo-Saxon it 
does not appear to have been declined like an adjective ; but 
Dr. Adams thinks that in Old English it received inflectional 
endings like an adjective : as, 

And hise disciples camen and took his body. — WyclifFe. 

The adjective form hisn occurs in provincial dialects. 

Her is from the Anglo-Saxon hyre or hire^ the genitive of 
the feminine heo^ a word still preserved in Lancashire, and 
pronounced hoo. When this pronoun is used absolutely, it 
takes the form of the double genitive hers : , * that is hers.' 

Its, This form is comparatively modern, not much more 
than three hundred years old. It is employed both before 
notms and absolutely ; and strictly it is rather the genitive of 
a personal, than a possessive pronoun. 

Their : this is formed from thara^ the genitive of the Anglo- 
Saxon demonstrative, and not from the genitive of the personal 
hira or heora. 

When the word is used absolutely, it takes the form theirs : 
' the estate was theirs.' 

We have then the following forms : — 



Before a Noun. 


Used absolutely. 


my 

thy ... . 


. mine 
. thine 


our 


. ours 


your . . . . 
his 


. yours 
. his 


her 


. hers 


their . 


. theirs 



PEONOTJNS. 119 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

213. Demonstrative Pronouns are used to ^ point out ' {de- 
monstrate) the objects to which they refer; more especially to 
show the locality of objects. They vary their forms to denote 
number, but not to denote gender or case : 

Singular. Plural, 

1. This These. 

2. That Those. 

This and these are used to point out objects near the speaker ; 
that and those to point out objects at some distance from the 
speaker. 

214. Some grammarians deny that this and that are pro- 
nouns. Professor Bain classes them under Adjectives, and 
terms them Pronominal Demonstratives. His reason for placing 
them under adjectives, and not imder pronouns, is that they 
' require a noun after them which the proper pronouns do not.' 
— English Grammar, p. 28. 

But as he cannot deny that these words often appear to 
stand alone, he ^ays, (p. 29) * The frequent ellipsis of the noun 
with the demonstrative adjectives is w^hat gives them the 
character of demonstrative pronouns : "after that, I shall say 
no more ; " " this being granted." ' 

Here, as usual with grammarians, he has recourse to the 
artifice of ' understanding ' a noun. 

215. Crombie, quoted by Kerchever Arnold, (^English Gram- 
mar^ § 71) says : 'it is abundantly evident that this and that 
are not pronouns, for they never represent a noun.' 

^ But surely,' replies Mr. Arnold, ' to go no further, " that" 
does stand for a noun in the example quoted by himself : 
the only good on earth 
"Was pleasure ; not to follow that was sin. 

Here that stands simply for pleasure ; there is no ellipse, for 
we cannot put in the word pleasure withoiit striking out that. 
That stands for pleasure, and not for that pleasure. So in 
such sentences as, " the first opportunity was that of the 
Prince of Denmark's death," that stands for the opportunity,^ 

216. Dr.Lowth is of opinion that these words are Adjectives, 
and not Pronouns ; he says {English Grammar, p. 40), ' Beside 
the foregoing, there are several other Pronominal Adjectives; 
which, though they may sometimes seem to stand by themselves, 



120 BULES AND CAUTIONS. 

yet have always some Substantive belonging to them, either 
referred to or ^ understood ; ' as, This^ that, other, any, some, 
one, none. 

217. Sir John Stoddart rejoins (Universal Grammar,^. 44), 
* Almost all pronouns, except the first and second personals, 
are clearly adjectives in origin; but we cannot admit that 
they continue to be such when they stand by themselves, or 
as Lowth rather singularly expresses it, " seem to stand by 
themselves/' It is true that, in such cases, they often have 
" some substantive belonging to them, either referred to or 
understood ; " but this only proves that they are pronouns. 
Whether we say " this is good," " it is good," or " Ae is good," 
there is always some noun referred to or understood ; and the 
words it and he " seem to stand by themselves," just as much 
as the word this does.' 

218. The whole diffi<3ulty arises from the unwillingness of 
grammarians to admit that the term noun may comprise 
adjectives as well as substantives. They further maintain 
that an adjective can never stand alone, but must always have 
a substantive, either expressed or understood. 

As before stated, we do not scruple to extend the term 
pronoun ; hence, we call this and that pronouns ; and we say 
that they are used sometimes as substantives, sometimes as 
adjectives; in other words, sometimes absolutely, and stand- 
ing by themselves ; sometimes with a following noun. 

219. In the plural number, the substantive use is very 
common, and is admitted by some grammarians who question 
the same usage in the singular : so. 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

Pope, Essay on Man, iv. 21, 22. 
In the singular the substantive use is more common in 
reference to things, or to thoughts : as, 

Self-love, the spring of motion acts the soul ; 
Reason s comparing balance rules the whole ; 
Man, but for that, no action could attend ; 
And, but for this, were active to no end. 

lb, ii. 59—62. 
Often, too, that is used referring to a phrase, or to an entire 
sentence : as, 

To be or not to be, that is the question. 

Hamlet, iii. 1. 



PRONOUNS. 121 

In reference to persons, when this and that are used sub- 
stantively, it will be found, as a general rule, that a noun is 
used as a predicate-nominative in the sentences : as, * this is 
my brother,' * that is my friend/ We cannot say, ^ this did the 
deed,' meaning ^ this man ; ' or * that shall be punished,' 
meaning that person.' — See Mason, English Grammar, § 157. 

220. A very common use of that is before a genitive case, 
in order to avoid the repetition of a noun : as, 

He mistook his own room for that of the stranger. 

We might express this more briefly by saying ^ for the 
stranger's.' Professor Bain suggests (Encjlish Grammar, p. 
20), that the form ^ that of the stranger ' is derived from the 
French. 

So in the plural : 

The rules of style, like those of law, arise from prece- 
dents often repeated. 

221. This and that are also used as ^ logical ' pronouns ; 
that is, they refer to some word or words, which have oc- 
curred in discourse : as, 

The general was in command of a large force. This 
force consisted of infantry and cavaby. 
Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition : 
By ito sin feU the angels. Henry VII I. iii. 2. 

222. When two objects are named, this represents the 
latter ; that the former ; like hie and ille in Latin : as, 

This can unlock the gates of Joy ; 
Of Horror that^ and thrilling Fears. 

Gray, Progress of Poetry. 

223. The singular this is sometimes used with a plural 
noun and an adjective, when they mark a period of time : 

This seven years did not Talbot see his son. 

1st Henry VI, iv. 3. 

224- The adjective use of this and that is so common as 
hardly to need exemplification : 

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 
Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, 

Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

Gray, Elegy.. 



122 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



CAUTIONS. 



225. Younger pupils must learn to distinguish between the 
demonstrative that^ the relative that^ and the conjunction or 
connective particle that. Probably these forms have all arisen 
irom the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative thcet ; but diversity of 
usage has given them a different character. At present, it 
will be enough to furnish an example of each : 

Deinonstrative , That man told me so. 
Eelative . . . He is the man that told me so. 
Conjunction . . He said that he would come. 

226. Some difference of opinion prevails resjDecting the use 
of the demonstrative followed by a relative : as, those whoy those 
that ; and in particular, whether it be correct to say they who, 
they that, using they in the sense of any persons, or persons in 
general, 

Cobbett draws a distinction : in the sentence * We ought 
always to have a great regard i«r them who are wise and good,' 
he maintains that we ought to say ^for those who are wise and 
good ' if we mean ^ those ' persons in general * who are wise 
and good.' But in reference to particular persons, who are 
stated to be wise and good, and who are also beloved, we may 
€ay ' I love them who are wise and good,' where the pronoun 
^ who ' has a co-ordinating force. 

Hence he condemns this passage in Dr. Blair's Rhetoric 
(Lecture 21) : * The two paragraphs are extremely worthy of 
Mr. Addison, and exhibit a style which they who can success- 
fully imitate may esteem themselves happy.' He thinks that 
they ought to be those ; and in commenting upon another 
passage he remarks, ' It is truly curious, that Lindley Murray 
should, even in the motto in the title-page of his English 
Grammar, have selected a sentence containing a grammatical 
error ; still more curious, that he should have found this sen- 
tence in Dr. Blair's Lectures on Language ; and most curious 
of all, that this sentence should be intended to inculcate the 
great utility of correctness in the composing of sentences ! 
^' They who are learning to compose and arrange their sen- 
tences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same 
time, to think with accuracy and order." ' — Cobbett, Grammar, 
§ 210. 

227. But we must not be too hasty in condemning Lindley 



PROXOUNS. 123 

Murray and Dr. Blair ; we may do well to inquire whether 
there be a grammatical error in this sentence ; whether, in 
fact, this use of they may not be warrantable. 

228. Etymologically, theij is a demonstrative pronoun : it 
is inaccurate to consider they the plural oi he. The words be- 
long to different systems ; and they is formed fiom the Anglo- 
Saxon demonstrative se^ seo, thcet. — See Latham, English 
Grammar^ § SI* 

229. The question resolves itself into one of usage ; and 
there can be no doubt as to the phrase they that in the older 
stages of the langu^ige. Professor Bain advocates the use of 
that instead of icho^ in what he calls the restrictive use of the 
relative in adjective clauses. In accordance with that view, 
he argues {English Grammar), p. 192: * The form "those 
who," applied in a restrictive sense, is the modern substitute 
for the ancient idiom " they that," an idiom in accordance 
with the true meaning of "that:" '^ they that told me the 
story said ; " " blessed are they that mourn ; " " and Simon 
and they that were with him; " "I love them that love me, 
and they that seek me early shall find m.e." ' — See § 92. 

We have, then, authority for they that ; and the modern 
those who is unquestioned. They ivho is frequently employed 
by Dr. Johnson, in those general propositions which he is fond 
of enunciating ; and, as we have seen, it has the authority of 
Dr. Blair. 

The phrase is not so manifestly wrong as Mr. Cobbett sur- 
mises; but, in practice, it is safer to write those who, or those 
that, in general statements. 

230. That is used after relative pronouns and relative ad- 
verbs, in a manner which seems to us superflaous ; but this 
usage was very common in older English : as. 

In olde dayes of the Kyng Arthour, 

Of which that Britouns speken gret honour, 

Al was this lond fulfilled of fayrie. 

Chaucer, The Wyf of Bathes Tale, 
Wot ye not wher ther stent a litel toim, 
Wliich that icleped is Bob-up-and-doun. 

Chaucer, Prologue of the Maunciples Tale, 
Wlien that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. 

Julius Ccesar, iii. 2, 
In modern English we have still the phrases noio that, so that, 
— See Adams, Elements, § 531. 

g2 



124 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

231, Yon, 9/dnd, and yonder are forms derived from the 
Anglo- kSaxon adverb geond, which appears in our word he-yond. 
In practice, however, these forms are sometimes used with the 
force of demonstrative pronouns : 

Yond Cassius hath a lean and hungry look. 

Julius Ccesar, i. 2. 

Near yonder copse, where once a garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden flower grows wild. 

Goldsmith, Deserted Village, 



INTEEKOaATIVE PRONOUNS. 

232. Interrogative pronouns, used in asking questions, are 
who and w?tat. We have also to consider which and whether ; 
and we shall find that, etymologically, which is not the neuter 
of who, but a compound word. Whether is a derivative. 

233. Of the pronoun ivho, what, the following forms remain, 
common to the singular and plural : 

Masc, and Fern. Neut, 

Nom. who , . . • , what 

Gen. whose .... (whose) 

Dat. whom .... — 

Ace. whom .... what 

There are doubts whether whose may be used in the neuter 
gender ; but, etymologically, there is no reason against it. 
And, practically, the usage in the neuter is very convenient ; 
for otherwise we are obliged to say * of which ; ' as for ex- 
ample, instead of * the trees whose leaves are withered,' we 
must turn the phrase, ^ the trees the leaves of which are 
withered.' 

These forms are used in the singular and in the plural. 
What may be employed adjectively; the rest are used as 
substantives. 

When what is used as a substantive, it is singular and 
neuter ; when used as an adjective, it may be joined to a noun 
of any gender, and of either number. 

234. Wliich is properly a compound word, from the Anglo- 
Saxon hwilc, contracted from hwa-lic *what-like,' correspond- 
ing to the Latin qua-lis. As an interrogative it may be used 



PRONOUNS. 125 

substantively or adjectively, for any gender, and for either 
number: as, 

Which was it ? 

Which of you will go ? 

Which will you have ? 

Which place did he choose ? 

Which numbers did she select ? 

In asking questions we distinguish between ivho and which. 
For example, ' who spoke ? ' asks the question generally ; ^ which 
spoke ? ' inquires for a particular individual of a number or 
class. 

235. Whether^ Anglo-Saxon hwcether, is the interrogative pro- 
noun hwa, 'who,' with the old termination -tho^ which denotes 
* one of two,' as we see it in ' o-ther^^ * ei-ther.'' In modern 
English its force as a pronoun has been lost, and it is employed 
adverbially; but in older English it is seen as a true pro- 
noun : 

Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? i, e. 
* which of the two ? ' 

Caution, 

236. When an interrogative pronoun introduces a dependent 
clause, there is danger of mistaking it for a relative. 

To determine whether ' who,' ' which,' or ' what ' is an inter- 
rogative, turn the sentence into a question. If the dependent 
clause gives the answer to such a question, the pronoun is an 
interrogative : as, 

I asked ivho was there. 

Question, — What did you ask ? 

Answer, — Who was there. 

They inquired what he was going to do. 
Question, — What did they inquire ? 
Answer, What he was going to do. 

In these sentences who and ivhat are interrogative pronouns. 
— See Arnold, English Grammar^ § 78. 

237. When the interrogatives. ivho and whom are placed 
near the words with which they are joined in construction, 
there is not much risk of error : as ' Who was there ? ' ' Whom 
did you see V ' To whom did he give it ? ' But when the 
interrogatives stand at some distance from the related words, 
the ear gives no assistance, and mistakes may arise as, who 



126 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

did he give it to ' for * whom did he give it fo.' In spite of 
Lindley Murray, it is idiomatic, in English, to throw a prepo- 
sition to the end of a clause or sentence ; but then we must 
carefully remember the government : ' whom did he give it 
to ? ' exhibits precisely the same government as ' To whom did 
he give it ? ' 

Take these instances : * Whom do men say that / am ? 
But whom say ye that / aju ? ' — Matt, xvi. 13-15. ^ Whom 
think ye that / am ? ' — Acts xiii. 25. In these places ivhom 
ought to be loho^ for the pronoun is not governed by the 
verb say or thinky but enters into the construction of the sub- 
ordinate sentence. For, in an indicative sentence, we might 
have * Ye say that I am he :' then, in the way of interrogation, 
the nominative he being thrown to the beginning of the question 
becomes who, not whom : — 

' Wlwj say ye, that I am ? ' — See Lowth, English Gram- 
mar J p. 110. 



EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

238. Etymologically, we have no true relative pronoun in 
English ; but we borrow other pronouns, and use them as 
relatives. In our earliest writings, that is so employed ; in 
course of time, the interrogatives who and what, with the com- 
pound pronoun luhich, were also used ; and although, in 
practice, which serves as a neuter, this was not the original 
force of the word. 

But, what is the meaning of the word relative^ in the term 
^relative pronoun ? ' Other pronouns may involve a reference 
to some word which has gone before in a sentence, and which 
might be termed the antecedent, that is, the ' fore-goer,' or the 
' fore-runner.' 

239. The distinctive character of ^relative pronouns,' pro- 
perly so called, is that they cannot be used to form the subject 
of an independent sentence ; but that they are employed to 
introduce a subordinate sentence, otherwise termed a de- 
pendent clause. And as they must, of necessity, look for 
some subject to which they relate^ they are called relative. 

For example, the interrogative ^ who' may be used alone in 
an interrogative sentence ; as, ^ Who did it ? ' But the relative 
' who ' cannot be used alone in an indicative sentence : to say. 



PRONOUNS* 127 

* Who did it * ^tould have no meaning ; but the sentence, ^ I 
know the man wlio did it^^ is intelligible. 

The noun or pronoun, to which the relative points, is 
usually called the antecedent^ because it conimonlj^ ' goes 
before ' the relative. But sometimes the noun or pronoun 

* comes after ' the relative, in which case the term a?^^e-cedent 
is not literally correct. 

Sometimes a relative pronoun refers to a phrase, or to a 
whole sentence, which then takes the place of an antecedent. 

240. We shall consider the origin and the uses of the forms 
that, who, ivhat, and which. That is from the Anglo-Saxon 
thcetj the neuter of the demonstrative se, seo, thcet. 

In Anglo-Saxon, the relative is expressed sometimes by the 
demonstrative, and at other times by the indeclinable particle 
the ; as, 

Se the of heofone com, se ys ofer ealle. 
He that from heaven came, he is over all. 

Joh7i iii. 31. 
Thset the acenned is of flassc, thset is fl^sc. 
That which born is of flesh, that is flesh* 

Id, iii. 6. 
Sometimes we find thcet doubled : 

Ic sende eow to rypanne, thwt th(]Bt ge ne beswuncon. 
I sent you to reap that that ye ne belaboured. 

Id, iv. 38. 
i.e. ^ that for which he have not laboured.' 

This will explain the use of that in older English, where the 
one word is made to do double duty : 

To consider advisedly of that is moved. — Bacon, Essay 

xxii. 
We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen. 
— John iii. 11. 
where Wycliffe reads, ^ that that we witen.' 

A nice question might be raised, one more curious than 
useful, whether the first or second thcet was omitted : the ante- 
cedent thcet or the relative thcet. 

In like manner, the neuter pronoun it is used where we 
should employ that which, or what : 

By this also a man may understand, when it is that men 
may be said to be conquered ; and in what the nature 
of a conquest and the right of a conqueror consisteth ; 
for this is it implieth them alL — Hobbes, Leviathan. 



128 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

And this IS it men mean by distributive justice, and is 

properly tempered equity. — Hobbes, Elements of Law ^ 

part i. chap. iv. 2. 

The English relative that is used for all genders, and for 

either number ; hence it is conveniently used for who or which^ 

when we do not wish to discriminate gender ; and in instances 

where the antecedents refer to things, as well as persons : thus, 

Ulysses spoke of the men and the cities that he had seen. 

241. Who is derived from the interrogative hwa^ * who ? ' 
In the authorised version of the Bible, the relative who is oc- 
casionally employed, but the more usual relative is that. Who 
is never used as an adjective. 

The genitive ivhose is used as the possessive case of the 
relative pronoun ; and in prose, custom has been in favour of 
restricting it to the masculine and feminine genders. Etymo- 
logically, it might be used of all genders, for, in Anglo-Saxon, 
the genitive hwces was employed for the neuter as well as for 
the masculine or the feminine. In the poets, we constantly 
find whose referring to neuter nouns : as, 

But that I am forbid 
To tell the secrets of my prison-house, 
I could a tale unfold, whose lightest word 
Would harrow up thy soul. — Hamlet, i. 5. 

But that the dread of something after death, 
The undiscovered country, from whose boiu*n 
No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; 
And makes us rather bear those ills we have. 
Than fly to others that we know not of. — Id, iii. 2. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Eestore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly Muse. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 1-6. 

242. Wliat is derived from hwcet, the neuter of the interro- 
gative : it is nominative or objective, singular and neuter. 

When used as a relative, ivhat may be used substantively 
or adjectively. But it has a peculiar force; it appears to be 
equivalent to an antecedent and a relative combined : ' Wliat 
1 said was this,' i.e. ' that which I said was this ; ' * what time 
I am afraid, I will trust in thee,' i.e. * at that time at which I 



PEONOUNS. 129 

am afraid, I will trust in thee.' But it is a mistake, says Mr. 
Mason {English Grammar, § IGl), to parse the word what, as 
though it were made up of that which. In such a sentence as 
* I know what is correct,' it is wrong to say that what is in 
any sense governed by the verb know, Wliat is the subject 
of the verb 2*5, and is in the nominative case. 

We may suppose that this use of what originated from the 
employment of that in two co-ordinate sentences : as, 

That he bids, that thou shalt do. 

What he bids, that thou shalt do. 

What he bids, thou shalt do ; 
and by conversion, 

Thou shalt do what he bids. 
But let us consider this passage : 

What he bids be done is finished with his bidding. — 
CoriolanuSj v. 4. 

Here we want a nominative to the verb is ; and we also want 
an objective dependent upon the verb bids, or to stand as a 
subject-accusative to the infinitive he done : hence there is a 
strong temptation to resolve what into that which : 

That, which he bids be done, is finished with the bidding. 

If we say, that ivhat is here the objective, then the nominative 
of the sentence (that) is omitted, and we have a sentence with- 
out an apparent nominative. 

243. Which, as we have seen (§ 234), is a compound word, 
and is used both as an adjective and a substantive. Although, 
in practice, its use is limited to inanimate and irrational beings, 
yet it is not properly the neuter of who. 

Hence ^ Our Father which art in heaven ' is grammatically \ 
accurate ; although it appears that the Americans have thought {v 
right to alter which into who. Cobbett says (English Grammar, 
§ 65), * This application of the relative which solely to irra- 
tional creatures is, however, of modern date; for, in the 
Lord's Prayer, in the English Church Service, we say, " Our 
Father ivhich art in heaven." In the American Liturgy this 
error has been corrected ; and they say, " Our Father who art 
in heaven." ' But there was no error, and consequently no 
necessity for change. Still the usage of the language has 
varied, and by present custom who, whose, whom are now 
limited, in prose, to rational beings ; ichich to irrational beings, 
inanimate objects, and collective nouns, when the idea of per- 

g3 



130 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

soDtility is not prominent ; while that may represent nouns of 
any kind. — See Angus, Handhooh^ § 435. 

244. When inanimate objects are personified, wliOj whose, 
and whom may be employed ; but we should avoid a confu- 
sion of genders : as, 

'Twas Love's mistake, who fancied what it feared. 

Crahhe, 

Connection of the Antecedent a7id the Relative. 

245. The Antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, an infini- 
tive used substantively, a phrase, or a sentence. 

Some men are too ignorant to he humble, without ivhich 
there can be no docility and no progress. — Berkeley. 

Homer is remarkably concise, ivhich renders him lively 
and agreeable. — Blair, 

Here the antecedents are the * being humble ' and the fact 
of ' being concise.' 

246. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it 
refers, either expressed or understood : as. 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

Othello, iii. 3. 
that is, the man who, or he ivho. 

247. The relative is of the same person with the antece- 
dent ; and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, 

Who is this that cometh ftom Edom ; this that is glorious 
in his apparel ? I that speak in righteousness. 

Isaiah Ixiii. 1. 

shepherd of Israel ; Thou that leadest Joseph like a 
flock ; Thou that die el I est between the Cherubims, 
shine forth. — Psalm Ixxx. 1. 

Now take this passage ; 

1 am the Lord that maketh all things ; that siretcheth 
forth the heavens alone ; that spreadeth abroad .the 
earth by myself. — Isaiah xliv. 21. 

In the first part of the sentence * I am the Lord that maketh 
. . . that stretcheth,^ all is right : the Lord in the third person 
is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the 
third person : ^ I am the Lord, which Lord, or he, that maketh 
all things.' It would have been equally right, if / had been 
made the antecedent, and the relative and the verb had agreed 



PEONOUNS. 131 

with it in the first person : * / am the Lord, that make all 
things,' But when it follows, * that spi^eadeth abroad the 
earth by inyself^'' there arises an apparent confusion of the 
third and first persons. — See Lowth, English Grammar^ p. 145. 
But in Hebrew poetry we often find an alternation of per- 
sons, not in accordance with formal grammar, but quite 
intelligible, and conducive to poetical ornament : as, 

O that my people had hearkened unto me, and Israel had 
w^alked in my ways ! / should soon have subdued 
their enemies, and turned wjj hand against their adver- 
saries. The haters of the Lord should have submitted 
themselves unto him\ but their time should have 
endured for ever. He should have fed thein also with 
the finest of the wheat ; and with honey out of the 
rock should / have satisfied thee. 

Psalm Ixxxi. 13-16. 

248. Our own poets sometimes take a license which is not 
so warrantable, because it exhibits rather confusion than alter- 
nation : as^ 

Thou great first cause, least understood, 

Who all my sense confin'd^ 
To know but this, that Thou art good, 

And that myself am blind : 
Yet gave me in this dark estate, &c. 

Pope, Universal Prayer, 

In strict grammar, the poet should have Avritteu conjinedst 
or didst confine^ gavest or didst give. 
And so here : 

O thou supreme ! high throned all height above ! 
O great Pelasgic, Dodonean Jove ! 
Who midst surrounding firost, and vapours chill. 
Preside on bleak Dodona's vocal hill. 

Pope, Iliad, xvi, 284. 
where the grammar requires presidest, 

249. A collective noun, representing a class or group of 
individuals, is referred to by which, and the verb follows in 
the singular ; but w4ien the idea of plurality is intended, the 
notion of personality also comes in; and then the reference is 
by means of the pronoun * who,'' and the verb follows in the 
plural : 

The committee, which was appointed last session, reports 
in favour of the biU. 



132 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

The ministry, who were divided among tnemselves, were 
obliged to resign. 

Care must be taken not to combine the two constructions : 
as, 

That ingenious nation, who have done so much for modem 
literature, possesses in an eminent degree the talent of 
narra tion . — Blair, 

250. In older English, which and that are frequently found 

after such : as, 

Avoid such games, which require much time or long 

attendance. — Jeremy Taylor, 
But with such words that are but rooted in your 

tongue. 

251. Instead of a relative pronoun, we more commonly use 
the relative adverb as, after the antecedents such^ same : as, 

Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 620. 
i. e. ^ tears like those which angels weep.' 

Art thou afeard 
To be the saine in thine own act and valour, 
As thou art in desire ? Macbeth, i. 7. 

In like manner but is frequently equivalent to a relative 
and a negative : 

There is no vice so simple, but assumes 
Some mark of virtue on his outward parts. 

Merchant of Venice, iii. 2. 

252. But although as, after such and same, has the force 
of a relative, we cannot admit that it is a relative pr^onoun. 
Dr. Adams (English Grammar, § 253) and Professor Bain 
{English Grammar, p. 24) are careful to use the term ^ relative,' 
and not ^ relative pronoun.' So too Dr. Angus {Handbook, § 
227). But the latter adds, * The use of as and so with a pro- 
nominal force, is justified by analogous forms in the Gothic 
languages.' 

No doubt there is a tendency in the Germanic languages 
to employ an adverb where other languages would use a pro- 
noun. We say ' wherein,' ' whereby,' for ^ in which,' ^ by 
which ; ' and the Germans are fond of using such forms as 

* dazu,' ' dabei,' ^ dadurch,' equivalent to ^ thereto,' ^ thereby,' 

* therethrough.' 



PRONOUNS. 133 

Compare also tlie following passages : 

I have heard 
Where many of the best respect in Eome, 
(Except immortal Caesar), speaking of Brutus, 
And groaning underneath this age's yoke, 
Have wished that noble Brutus had his eyes. 

Julius Ccesar, i. 2. 
The abuse of greatness is, when it disjoins 
Eemorse jfrom power ; and, to speak truth of Caesar, 
I have not known when his affections swayed 
More than his reason. 

Ibid. ii. 1. 

But it is one thing to say that an adverb is used where we 
might expect a pronoun, or where other languages would em^ 
ploy a pronoun ; and it is another thing to maintain that an 
adverb is a pronoun. I have sometimes suspected that, in an 
older stage of the language, the phrases ^ as that,^ * but that ' 
may have occurred in such constructions ; but I have not yet 
been able to find instances. 



Omission of the Antecedent, 

253. When the antecedent is Ae, they^ or those^ it is often 
omitted: as, 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

Othello J iii. 3. 

When the neuter antecedent thati^ omitted, the relative form 
is what and not which : as, * He knows what he wants.' In 
older English, that sometimes stands alone in such construc- 
tions : as, * we speak that we do know ; ' and grammarians 
generally regard that in such instances as an antecedent, with 
omission of the relative. Hence, Dr. Angus lays down the 
following rule : ^ These sentences are best read by pausing 
after " that," and before *^ what," thus treating them as ante- 
cedent and relative respectively : as. 

We speak — what we know. 
We testify that — we have seen.' 

Angus, Handbook, § 227. 

This is a good practical rule ; but the theory might be matter 
of controversy. 



134 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

The antecedent is very seldom omitted when governed by a 
preposition ; but Milton writes, 

How wearisome 
Eternity so spent in worship paid 
To whom we hate. 

Paradise Lost, ii. 247. 
i. e. ^ to Mm whom,^ 

Dr. Adams remarks {English Gramma?' ^ § 546), that ^ the 
antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun ; ' as, 
And do you now strew flowers in his way. 
That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood ? 

Julius Ccesar, i. 1. 

But this passage is capable of another interpretation : his 
may be taken as the genitive of the personal pronoun == of 
him : and then the construction would be * in the way of him 
that comes, &c.* 

Omission of the Relative. 

254. The relative is frequently omitted, when, if expressed, 
it would stand in the objective case : as ' The man I saw,' for 
* the man whom I saw : ' so ^ the horse I bought,' * the book 
I gave,' 

But where the omitted relative would, if expressed, be de- 
pendent upon a preposition, there is an awkwardness in omit 
ting the preposition as well as the relative : so. 

Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king, he would not in mine age 
Have left me nak^d to mine enemies. 

Henr^j VIII, iii. 2. 

Here the meaning is * with half the zeal that I sei^ved my kiog 
withy or * with which I served my king.' 

In the temper of mind he was. 

Spectator, 54. 
for ^ that he was ^7^,' or * in which he was.' 

The omission of the relative, when, if expressed, it would 
stand in the nominative case, is much less frequent : as, 

In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man ; 
i. e. * 'tis God who directs.' 

In some few instances, where the relative is omitted, the 
antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative ; that is, 



PRONOUNS. 135 

it is put into the case in which the relative would have 
stood : as, 

Him I accuse 
The city ports by this hath entered. 

Coriolanus^ v. 5. 
i, e. * he, lohom I accuse . . . hath entered.' 



POSITION. 

255. The relative pronoun usually stands immediately after 
the antecedent ; but when the sense of the passage clearly in- 
dicates the antecedent, qualifying words, or phrases, are some- 
times interposed. 

But here there is great risk of error. A careless writer 
often introduces qualifying phrases, and then employs a rela- 
tive pronoun referring to some word in the former part of the 
sentence, but without considering whether the reader may not 
apply the pronoun to some word in the quahfying phrase. 
Classical scholars are liable to errors of this kind. For they 
have been accustomed to the construction of the Greek and 
Latin languages, in which the varieties of termination, the 
concords of gender and number, are a guide to the sense ; 
hence, when composing in English, they are apt to forget that 
the position of words is the great safeguard. 

Therefore, as a general rule, it is well to place qualifying 
phrases in some other part of the sentence, and not between . 
the relative and its antecedent ; unless those qualifying phrases 
have exclusive reference to the antecedent, and do not involve 
a new subject. 

256. The order of words, in the government of a relative 
pronoun by a preposition, demands attention, as showing a re- 
markable difference between that and who. 

We can use a preposition before ' whom ' and ^ which,' but 
not before ' that.' We cannot say, * the man of that I told 
you ; ' but the preposition must be thrown to the end of the 
clause, * the man that I told you q/.' The same construction 
may be found with ' whom : ' as, 

Horace is an author whom I am much delighted with. 
The world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, 
which generally their booksellers are the first that in- 
form them of. — Pope, Preface to Poem^. 

But there is this distinction : the preposition may stand before 



136 nULES AND CAUTIONS. 

* whom,' ^whicli,' or it may be thrown to the end of the clause: 
with ^ that ' there is no choice ; the preposition must be throAvn 
to the end. 

This is an idiom which prevails in common conversation, 
and accords with similar constructions in GermaD ; but, about 
two hundred years ago, an opinion began to prevail that this 
usage was inelegant, if not incorrect. Dry den published two 
editions of his ^ Essay on Dramatic Poesy,' the first in 1668, 
and the second sixteen years afterwards, in 1684. The alter- 
ations made by Dryden in the second edition are carefully 
noted by Malone, and are very suggestive. Among other 
changes, the idiom of ending a sentence with a preposition is re- 
jected. Thus, * I cannot think so contemptibly of the age I live 
in,' is alt-ered to * the age in which I live.' — See §§ 483-485. 

257. When the antecedent is governed by a preposition, it 
often happens that the preposition is rot repeated after that^ 
although such repetition would be necessary before whom or 
tvJiich : as, 

In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. 
— Genesis, ii. 17. 
i. e. ' in the dav in which.^ 



EEFLECTIVE PKONOUNS. 

258. A Reflective pronoun refers to the subject of the pre- 
position in which it stands. — Matthias, Greek Grammar, § 11'7. 

Reflective pronouns refer to the person or thing expressed 
in the nominative case. In English the word self is used for 
this purpose. — Key, Latin Grammar, § 278. 

Professor Key argues (§ 279) that Reflective pronouns, 
from their very nature, can have no nominative or vocative. 
But for the sake of emphasis, the Greek avrot: and the 
English self axe constantly found in opposition with the subject- 
nominative. 

259. There is no distinct reflective pronoun in Anglo- 
Saxon, or in modern English : 

thaet folk hit reste : 

the folk it rested ; 
i.e. * rested itself.' 

tha theowas wyrmdon hig ; 

the servants warmed the?n ; 
i.e. ' warmed themselves.' 



PEONOUKS. 137 

So in older English, and in poetry, the personals are em- 
ployed where the agent is acting upon himself, or makes 
reference to himself: as, 

I thought me richer than the Persian kmg. — Ben Jonson, 
He sat him down at a pillar's base. — Byron, 

But commonly the word self is added in such instances ; 
and confusion has arisen from not clearly determining the force 
of this word. ' Myself would lead us to think self a sub- 
stantive ; but 'himself looks as if self were an adjective; 
indeed, in some provincial dialects, we find * his-^eW uni- 
formly used for '• hvn-selV Nor should we despise these 
dialectic varieties; they sometimes throw light upon gram- 
matical theories. 

260. Let us examine the history of self In Anglo-Saxon 
s?/Z/ appears to be an adjective, and it agrees with the pronoun 
to which it is joined. R^sk says (Anglo-Saxon Gramma?^, 
§ 141) sylf is usually added to the personal pronoun in the 
same case and gender ; as 

ic sylf hit eom ; 

I self it am. — Luke xxiv. 39. 
i. e. * it is I myself.' 

ic swerige thurh me sylfne ; 

I swear through me self. 

Gen, xxii. 16. 
i. e. ' by myself.' 

Sometimes however, adds Eask, the dative of the perse nal 
pronoun is prefixed to the nominative of sylf : as, 
ic com me-sylf to eow 
I come myself to you. 

^If jsr. r. p. 35. 
1. e. ^ of my own accord.' 

£er thu the-seJf hit me gerehtest 
ere thou thyself it to-me didst-explain. 

Boethms, v. 1. 

261« In Layamon's Brut the word sometimes has the mean- 
ing of ' alone ; ' thus when Cordelia is sent away to be married 
to the French king Aganippus, King Leir sends her, 

mid seolven hire clathen ; . / 

with selves her clothes; / 

that is, with the clothes she wore, but without any outfit, or 
anything in the way of dowry. 



138 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

262. Besides the emphatic forms used to strengthen the 
nominative ic me-sylf and thu the-sylf^ we also find ic sylf^ 
' I self and thu sylf^ * thou self.' 

In early English, me-sylf and the-sylf passed into mi-sylf 
my-sylf thi-sylf tliy-sylf^ whence it was thought that self 
had a substantive force, and that my^ thy were pot^sessive 
pronouns. Hence too, by analogy, such forms as ourselves 
and yourselves arose. 

In older English we find 7i/5-56Z/ and their-selves, M^hich are 
formed on the analogy of myself and yourself and are 
theoretically defensible, though not allowed in modern 
English: — 

Every of us, each for hisself laboured how to recover 
him. 

That they would willingly, and of theirselveSy endea- 
vour to keep a perpetual chastity. 

263- It is worth remarking that, in modern English, the 
first and second persons exhibit the substantive force of self: 
as myself thyself ourselves^ yourselves ; where Dr. Latham 
remarks {^English Grammar^ § 331) that the word self (or 
selves) governs the words m?/, thy^ our^ your^ just as in the 
expression John's hat, the word hat governs the word John's ; 
so that my, thy, are possessive cases. 

On the other hand, in the third person, we find the word 
used apparently as an adjective, but added to the objective case 
of the pronoun, in the forms himself themselves. This pre- 
sents no difficulty when the pronouns are used as the object 
of a verb : * He crowned himself^ ' They praised themselves.^ 
But it is very difficult to justify the use of himself as a nomi- 
native in the sentences, ' He himself said so,' * Himself bare 
our sins.' We can only say that it is the custom of the lan- 
guage, one of the many anomalies that have crept in. 

264. The word herself is ambiguous ; since it is doubtful 
whether her be a possessive or an objective case. 

In like manner it is doubtful whether it-self was originally 
itself or itsself 

Oneself and one^s self are both used ; though oneself is 
the more common. 

In the poets we find self sometimes as a substantive, and 
sometimes as an adjective : as. 

Swear by thy gracious self 



PRONOUNS. 139 

Being over full of 5 e// affairs 
My mind did lose it. 

Midsummer Night's Dreain^ i. 1. 

265. Whenever any words are interposed between the pro- 
nominal part and self^ the substantive force of self predomi- 
nates. We say him- self, but ' his own selfj * his own dear 
self.' So them-selvesj but ' their own precious selves,^ 

266. To express the adjectival Keflective (Lat. suus) we 
use the word own (Anglo-Saxon agen) with the possessive 
pronoun, or the genitive of the personal : as, * That is ?/??/ own 
book ; ' ^ Virtue is its own reward.' 



EECIPKOCAL PKOKOtmS. 

267. A Reciprocal pronoun is said to be one that implies 
the mutual action of different agents ; but we have no forms, 
in English, to which this term can strictly be applied. With 
us, reciprocity of feeling or action is expressed by the combi- 
nation each other, one another. 

In the constructions, ' They love each other,'' ' They love 
one another,' we consider each and one as nominatives, in 
opposition with the subject-nominative M^^; and other, another, 
objectives governed by the verb love. 

In such expressions as * after each other,' ^ to one another,' 
the place of the preposition has been disturbed. The real 
construction is ' each after other,' ^ one to another,' as we 
actually find in older English : 

A thousand sighes, hotter than the glede, 
Out of his breast each after other went. 

Chaucer. 

Some grammarians assert that each other strictly refers to two, 
and one another to any number more than two ; but this dis- 
tinction is not always observed. 



14(1 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Chapter VIII. 

WORDS VAEIOUSLY TEEMED ADJECTIVE PRO- 
NOUNS, OR PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, 

■ 268. When England and Scotland were distinct kingdoms, 
and often at war with one another, there was a belt of land on 
the Border, absolutely held by neither nation, and termed the 
' Debateable Land.' 

So there are words which lie on the border lino, between 
two Parts of Speech ; sometimes found on one side of the 
line, and sometimes upon the other ; but obstinately refusing 
allegiance to either. 

Grammarians have led us astray, by wishing to make it appear 
that the Parts of Speech are something more than an artificial 
division of their own ; and as though there were some corre- 
sponding natural division. Hence they have gravely discussed 
the question, whether the Parts of Speech are eight or nine in 
number. But, all along, they take for granted that the parts of 
speech can be clearly defined ; that all words can be brought 
Tinder one heading or another; and in order to make out 
their case, they have recourse to forced explanations. 

269. For example, in many languages, adjectives are used 
substantively; but the grammarians labour hard to show that, 
in such instances, a noun is always understood. They argue 
thus : that in speaking we do not always express all that 
we have in our thoughts ; but, very often, our words indicate 
what is meant, though not expressed. Hence adjectives are 
very oflen used, when the nouns to which they relate are not 
expressed. In such cases, the adjective is said to be used 
substantively ; that is, as though it were itself a substantive ; 
the real explanation being that the substantive, to which the 
adjective belongs, is not expressed, — See Mason, English 
Grammar^ §§ 97-99. 

But grammarians are obliged to admit, that some adjectives 
are used so completely as substantives as to have the ordinary 
inflections of nouns; when in fact the adjective becomes, to 
all intents and purposes, a noun substantive. Thus the words 
subject and individual are proper adjectives; but they are 
also nouns in such phrases as, ^ A subject'' s duties,' 'The subjects 
of the Queen,' ' Some individuals.'' 

Where are we to draw the line? It may be urged, that 
proper adjectives cannot have the inflections of a noun; that 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 141 

where such inflections are used, the word ceases to be an 
adjective, and becomes a substantive. 

270. But, on the other hand, we must be careful not to 
confound meaning with form. No doubt, when we speak of 
* the good,' we mean ^ good men ' or ^ good persons ; ' but 
there seems to be no reason, why we should insist upon 
supplying a word, a grammatical form, merely because we are 
unwilling to admit that the adjective may stand in the place 
of a substantive. 

In the same way, because each^ other ^ &c., are constantly 
used as Substantives, some grammarians do not like to call 
them adjectives^ but contend that they must be pronouns at 
all events ; and some, by way of compromise, have termed 
them Adjective Pronouns. 

Others again, thinking that most of these words are origi- 
nally adjectives, have stated the compromise in the other 
way, and called them Pronominal Adjectives. In truth, 
grammarians have hardly known what to call them. But this 
very difficulty should have led grammarians to reflect, and to 
inquire whether the distinction between Parts of Speech is, or 
is not, absolute. — See §§ 403, 404. 

271. We shall divide these words, accordingly, as they de- 
note quality or quantity. 

I. Words denoting quality : such^ same, only. 
Such means literally * so-like,' and is derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon swa-lic, swilc. 

It is commonly used as an adjective : as. 

Such harmony is in immortal souls. 

Merchant of Venice, v. 1. 
It is also used as a substantive : as. 

Mere strength of understanding would have made him 
such in any age. — De Quincey, 
i. e. * such a person.' 

The adverb so is frequently found where we might expect 
such : as. 

We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; 
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 

Pope, Essay on Criticism, 438, 439. 

In these [free states] no man should take up arms, 

but with a view to defend his country and its laws : 

he puts not off the citizen, w^hen he enters the camp ; 

but it is because he is a citizen, and w^ould wish to 



142 BULES AND CAUTIONS. 

continue so, that he makes himself for a while a soldier. 

— Kerr's Blackstone, i. 414. 
Cobbett ventures to correct Sir William Black stone, saying 
that so ought to be such ; but the custom of the language 
warrants this use of so, 

Lindley Murray unfortimately took it into his head to 
order such to be turned into so, whenever it was found in 
company with another attributive. The notion has no foun- 
dation in truth or reason ; and the construction is constantly 
found in our best writers : * such worthy attempts,' Hilton ; 
^ such great and strange passages,' South, — See Kerchever 
Arnold's English Grainmar, § 72. 

272. Same is called by some grammarians a demonstrative 
pronoun. It is used both as an adjective and as a substantive ; 
and is usually preceded by the, this, or that. 

The two men were of the same nature. 
He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringetK 
forth much fruit. — John xv. 5. 

Obs, — The Anglo-Saxon same is an adverb. The correspond- 
ing adjectives are sylf, ' self,' and ylc, the Scottish illCf 
as ' Glengarry of that ilk,' i.e. * of the same ' or * Glen- 
garry of Glengarry.' 

273. Only (Anglo-Saxon an-lic, * one-like ') is a derivative 
of one. The original pronunciation of the word (one) is pre- 
served in this derivative, and in alone, ^ all-one.' It is not 
used substantively, but as an adjective; ^ the only son,' 'an 
onl?/ child.' It is also used as an adverb. — See §§ 434-438. 

II. Words denoting quantity, or number. 

274. Indefinites, These might be called Indefinite Nume- 
rals, as they have reference to number or quantity, without 
however ' defining,' that is, ' marking out ' or ' d(itermining ' 
the precise number. 

One. The numeral one is often used substantively, meaning 
a single individual of some kind already mentioned. When 
thus used, it may even take the plural form : ^ Give me an- 
other pen ; ' this is a bad one,' or ' these are bad ones.'' 

One = French on. We must not confound this word 
(which is said to be derived ultimately from the French 
homme, ' man ') with the numeral just mentioned. It is never 
found in the plural, but admits the possessive case singular : 
as, 

One does not like to lose one^s property. 

Some writers consider this use of the possessive inelegant ; 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 143 

but it is still more awkward to introduce the genitive of a per- 
sonal pronoun in its stead : as, * One does not like to lose his 
property.' In such instances, perhaps the best w^ay is to give 
the whole sentence a turn : as, * Loss of property is not agree- 
able to any one.' 

This word is always used substantively. 

275. None is compounded ofne-one'^ that is, not-one. And 
although, if one be singular, we might expect not one to be 
also siugular ; yet when this word is used substantively, it is 
sometimes followed by a plural verb. Indeed, this is almost 
invariably the case when a genitive plural intervenes : as, 
* None of the castles were taken.' This is literally ' not-one 
.... were ; ' but an idea is suggested to the mind, ' that all 
the castles were safe ; ' ^ that all were wn- taken ; ' and so the 
verb runs into the plural. 

This usage is so common, with good writers, that I suppose 
we must allow it. 

When this word is used adjectively, it is interchanged with 
no ; that is, none differs from 720, as mine differs from my. No 
is used when the noun which it qualifies is expressed ; and none 
v/hen the noun is not expressed : as, * I have no book, and my 
friend has none.'' 

276. Any is from the Anglo-Saxon wn-ig, which is derived 
from an or cen, ' one,' wdth the adjective termination -ig j so 
that the word any is originally an adjective. With nouns in 
the singular it often implies quantity ; but, with nouns in the. 
plural, it always refers to number. . Its general signification is 
any whatever : as. 

Mere strength of understanding would perhaps have 
made him such in any age. — De Quincey. 
With words of negation it excludes all : as, ' He has not 
received any letters.' 

The substantive use of the word is very common : as, 

Brutus. Who is here so base, that would be a bond- 
man ? If any^ speak ; for him have I offended. Who 
is here so rude, that would not be a Eoman ? If any, 
speak ; ioT him have I offended. Who is here so vile, 
that wall not love his country ? If any^ speak ; for 
him have I offended. I pause for a reply. 

Citizens. None, Brutus, none. 

Brutus. Then none have I offended. 

Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. 

277. Aught is in Anglo-Saxon a-wiht, aht. 



144 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

The Anglo-Saxon wilit is the English whit and ivight, 
* thing ' and ' person.' Hence aiight means ' anything.' 

The derivation is in favour of writing aughtj rather than 
ought ; and convenience dictates the same spelling ; for ought 
is employed as part of the verb ' owe,' and there is an advan- 
tage in keeping distinct forms for distinct meanings. 

Naught is compounded of the negative ne and aught, mean- 
ing * not anything.' 

These words aught and naught are originally substantives, 
and not adjectives. The true adjective formed from ' naught ' 
is naughty, literally meaning * of no value,' * worthless.' Where 
we read ' It is naught, it is naught, saith the buyer,' we may 
explain the construction thus : that a substantive in the pre- 
dicate has often the force of an adjective. 

278. Some, Anglo-Saxon suin, is used as an adjective and 
as a substantive ; * Some men were there ; ' * some said so, and 
some said not. 

In the singular, when employed as a substantive, it usually 
implies quantity : as. 

Some of his skiU he taught to me. 

Scott. 
In the plural it implies niunber : as, ' Some wish to be rich.' 
There is a distinction between some and any : 
Some means * not none,' * one or more.' 
Any means * some, no matter which.' 

Professor Bain says (^English Gramma?^, p. 31), * *^ Some " 
denotes an uncertain portion of an entire collection. 

* In strict logic it signifies " not none," that is, so7ne at least. 
There is a more popular meaning, which implies less than the 
whole, some only, or some at most. " Some men are wise " 
insinuates that there are other men not wise. Hence the 
alternative signification : ^' some believed, and some (others) 
believed not." ' 

279- Other. The derivation of this word seems doubtful ; 
but it is probably derived from the root of the word one, with 
the termination ther, which denotes ^ one of two,' as in ^ ei-ther,' 
corresponding to the ter in the Latin u-ter, neu-ter. 

But, in practice, the word other is not restricted to instances 
where two alone are in question ; it may apply to any num- 
ber, and means ^ some one, but not this ; ' * any, but not this.' 

The ordinary use of the word as an adjective before a sub- 
stantive is well known ; * the other day,' * the other way.' But 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 145 

when it stands alone, referring to a preceding substantive, as 
' He had no taste for poetry dramatic or other^ some writers 
appear to think this construction bald, and would even write, 

* dramatic or otheininse,'' But, strictly speaking, ' otherwise ' 
is an adverb, meaning * in another way ; ' whereas, in this 
construction, we want an adjective. The only way of defend- 
ing ' otherwise ' in this connection, would be to contend that 
here it means ^ of another kind.' Such an interpretation, 
however, is doubtful ; and it is better to say ^ dramatic or 
other.' 

So also, in phrases involving a comparison, we should dis- 
tinguish other than from otherwise than : as, 

{Adjective) . . He had no books other than classical. 
(^Adverb) . . . He never spoke otherwise than persuasively. 

280. When an precedes other ^ the two are often written as 
one word, another ; and observe, that the other means ^ the 
second of two ; ' another means ^ one of any number above 
two : ' as, 

Two women shall be grinding at the mill ; the one shall 
be taken, and the other left. — Matt, xxiv. 41, 

One generation passeth away, and another generation 
c>ov[iQ\h.—Ecclesiastes i. 4. 

Care must be taken not to confound the ideas of ^ two ' and 

* more than two,' and so to misapply the words * the other ' 
and ^ another.' For example, in this passage, 

And the house of Baal was full from one end to another. 
— 2 Kings x. 21. 

we are ready to ask, what other ? It should be ^ from one 
end to the other.'' 

In short, * another ' is Indefinite ; ' the other ' is Alternative. 

281. Many. In Anglo-Saxon there are two words: (1) an 
adjective, manig, or mce?iig, '• many,' ^ much ; ' (2) a substan- 
tive, mcenigeo^ ' sl multitude,' ^ crowd.' 

Both these words appear to have given rise to our word 
many, which is used sometimes as a substantive, and at other 
times as an adjective : as, 

(Adjective) . . . Many men, many minds. — Proverb. 
{Substantive) . . The many rend the skies with loud ap- 
plause. — Dryden, Alexander's Feast. 

The use of many in construction with the indefinite article 

H 



146 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

will be considered in the next chapter ; at present, we com- 
pare the following phrases : — 

(1) Many men. 

(2) Many a man. 

(3) A many men. 

(1). In the first example, many is an adjective agreeing 
with men. 

(2). In the second, many is also an adjective ; and by an 
idiom, to be discussed in the next chapter, the indefinite article 
comes between the adjective and the substantive : so, 
Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear : 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

Gray, Elegy. 

(3). In the third example, many is a substantive derived 
from mcem'geoj denoting multitude ; and men is a genitive by 
juxtaposition, dependent upon * many.' Hence, * a many 
men ' means ' a multitude of men.' 

282. Few, derived from the Anglo-Saxon adjective feawa, 
still appears as an adjective in ^ few persons,' ' few things.' It 
is employed in connection with the indefinite article in such 
phrases as ' a few years,' * a few apples,' where the construc- 
tion presents some difficulty. For there is no authority for 
calling few a substantive ; and, on the other hand, if few be an 
adjective, it must be in the plural to agree with Spears' or 
' apples ; ' whereas the indefinite article a requires that few 
should be in the singular. 

283. Distributives ; ' each,' ' every.' These words have re- 
ference to the members of a class, or to the parts of a whole, 
and are thus distinguished : 

Each means * every ' individual of a certain class, viewed 

separately. 
Every means * each ' taken collectively. 

Each is derived from the Anglo-Saxon celc. 
It is used adjectively and substantively ; as, 
Each man had his weapon. 
Each had his appointed place. 

It is properly singular ; and the correlative is ' other,' as in 
the phrase * bear each other'' s burdens.' 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 147 

But though each is properly singular, the best writers are 
liable to err in the use of pronouns referring to this word. 
Addison ^vrites, 

Each of the sexes should keep within its particular 
bounds, and content themselves to exult within their 
respective districts. — Freeholder^ No. 38. 

It is very doubtful whether, under any circumstances, 
themselves and their could gi^mmatically refer to each ; but 
there can be no doubt at all, that it is a glaring error to use 
its in one part of the sentence, and themselves in another, both 
referring to the same word, each. For even if, in the first 
instance, we might take our choice of singular or plural, we 
ought to be consistent. 

And so Crabbe : 

Now either spoke, as hope or fear impressed 

* Each ' their alternate triumph in the breast. 
The same caution applies to the use of ^ every ' : 

And they were judged every man according to their 
works. — Revelation^ xx. 13. 

284. Every is derived from the Anglo-Saxon mfre^ * ever,' 
cielc^ '' each,' ^. e. * ever each.' 

In Early English, it appears in the forms ^ ever-ilk,' 

* ever-ich.' 

In modern English, the word is used as an adjective only, 
and on that ground has been excluded by some writers from 
the class of pronouns. But in Early English it is frequently 
employed as a noun : so Chaucer, 

And everich had a chaplet on her head. 

When •' each ' denoted ^ one of two,' as seems to have been 
the case at one period in the history of the language, there 
was a difference in meaning between ^ each ' and ' every,' 
which does not appear to exist any longer. At present, the 
difference is chiefly one of usage : ' each ' may be used sub- 
stantively and adjectively ; ^ every ' only as an adjective. 

^ Every ' is an emphatic word for ^ all,' and makes a direct 
appeal to individuals ; as,'"^ 

England expects every man to do his duty. 

285. Alternatives ; * either,' * neither.' 

Either. The element ceg in composition signifies ^ ever,' 
' air ; as ceghwa^ '• ever who,' that is ' every one ' ; ceghwcer^ 
* every where.' In like manner from hwcether, ' which of two,' 

h2 



148 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 

we have ceghwcether, cegther, ' every one of two,' ^each,' ^ either/ 
vSee Bosworth, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary^ and Hensleigh Wedg- 
wood, Dictionary/ of English Etyynology, 

But Dr. Bosworth gives another form — athor, anther, awthcer, 
' either,' ' other,' * both.' And we may observe that the pro- 
nunciation of the word either is various : some say ether, 
others Ither, and in some counties the people say other. 
It is used both as an adjective and as a substantive : 
Adjective . . Either way is good. 
Substantive . But never either found another 

To free the hollow heart from paining. 

Coleridge, 

Very commonly we find the alternative either, where we 
might expect the distributive each : as, 

On either side 
Is level fen, a prospect wild and wide, 
With dike on either hand. Crahhe: 

Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the 
distresses or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor 
obliged the strong garrisons of Carrhae and Nisibis to 
surrender, and spread devastation and terror on either 
side of the Euphrates. — Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 10. 

According to modern usage, 

either means ^ one or other.' 
each means ' one and other.' 

Now Gibbon does not intend to tell us, that Sapor carried 
devastation on * one or other ' bank of the Euphrates, but 
upon both banks of the river ; and therefore we might have 
expected each instead of either. 

Still, as the older forms of the language exhibit either in the 
sense of * each,' I do not venture to say that Gibbon is wrong. 

286. Neither is compounded of ne ^ not,' and either ; and 
we remark, that while either means * one or other,' neither means 
* not one and not the other ' ; for the negative excludes each. 

Either and neither refer strictly to one of two objects : 
hence the following sentence is inaccurate : 

Injustice springs only from three causes. . . . Neither of 
these causes for injustice can be found in a Being 
wise, powerful, benevolent. 

We cannot say '• Neither of three ' : we should read, * No 
one of these causes.' 



ARTICLES. 149 

Chapter IX. 
ARTICLES. 

287. Professor Max Miiller remarks, that though the gene- 
ral outline of grammar existed at an early period in the schools 
of the Greek philosophers, yet the critical study of Greek took 
its origin at Alexandria, and was chiefly based on the text 
of Homer. 

Plato recognised the * noun ' and the * verb ' as the two 
component parts of speech ; Aristotle added * conjunctions ' 
and ' articles.' But with Aristotle, the word rhema (pfji^ta), 
commonly translated by the term verb, is little more than a 
* predicate,' For, in such a sentence as ^ snow is white,' he 
would have called ' white ' a rhema {prina) ; and under the 
head of ' articles' he would have comprised many words, which 
modern grammarians classify among other parts of speech. 

When the scholars of Alexandria were engaged in publish- 
ing critical editions of the Greek classics, they were obliged to 
discuss the various forms of Greek grammar. They raise 
such points as these : Did Homer use the article ? Did Homer 
use the article before proper names? Here the term ^article' 
had obtained a more precise meaning, as distinguished, for 
example, from the demonstrative pronoun. 

Article is a literal interpretation of the Greek word arthron 
{apdpou), which literally signifies the * socket of a joint.' 
The word was first used by Aristotle, and was fancifully 
applied to words which formed the * sockets ' in which the 
members of a sentence were supposed to move. Before the 
time of Zenodotus, the first librarian of Alexandria, 250 b.c, 
all pronouns were simply classed as ' sockets,' arthra, or 
' articles ' of speech. Zenodotus was the first to introduce a 
distinction between personal pronouns and the mere articles 
or articulations of speech, which henceforth retained the name 
of arthra. ( See Max Miiller, Science of Language j First Series, 
pp. 87—89.) 

288. In English we have two articles, an (sometimes con- 
tracted to a) and the. 

An, called the Indefinite Article, is used in speaking of any 
individual of a class. The old notion was, that the Inde- 
finite Article was a, but that n was added (an) before a word 
beginning with a vowel or silent A. The fact is just the 



150 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

contrary ; tlie article is an, and n is dropped before a word 
beginning with a consonant, or with vocal A. 

The^ called the Definite Article, is employed in speaking of 
a particular object, or class of objects. It is regarded as 

* defining,' that is * marking out,' the object in question. 

INDEFINITE AETICLE. 

289. An is a modification of the numeral one ; Anglo- 
Saxon, an or cen ; Old English, ane^ an, a. 

When it comes before a word beginning with a consonant, 
or with h vocal, w or y, the letter n is dropped : as * a man,' 

* a horse,' ' a wall,' ^ a year.' 

- In older English it is frequently written before h vocal, as 

* an house ' ; and even yet^ some writers think proper to say, 

* an historical account.' 

It was also common to write an before a word beginning 
with the letter u : as, ' an University.' But where the initial 
%t has the force of yw, it is now customary to omit n: as, * a 
Union,' * a University.' 

When several objects are separately specified, the indefinite 
article is usually placed before each :— 

Leave not a foot of verse, a foot of stone, 

A page, a grave, that they can call their own. — Pope. 

Hence, when the indefinite article is expressed ^before the 
first only of two or more nouns, the reader will infer that the 
nouns are to be taken together, as referring to the same person 
or thing. Thus, ' a priest and king ' will be interpreted to 
indicate the same individual holding the offices of priest and 
king combined. Similarly, * a coachhouse and stable ' implies 
that the two form one building, or one tenement, or that they 
are in close connection. Consequently, if we wish to mark 
separation, we must repeat the article : ' a priest and a king' ; 
^ a coachhouse and a stable.' By this rule, * a black and 
a white horse ' means two horses ; * a black and white horse ' 
means one horse. 

The same rule applies to the use of the Definite Article : 
^ the secretary and treasurer ' would lead us to suppose that 
one person occupied a twofold position ; but ^ the secretary 
and the treasurer ' would point to two distinct persons. 

290. If two nouns are applied to the same person, by way 
of comparison, the article is used only once : as, 

South ey is a better piose writer than poet. 



ARTICLES. lol 

Not that it would be wrong to say, * a better prose writer 
than a poet ' ; for we might turn the sentence thus : — 
Southey is more successful as a prose writer than as a poet. 

291. The force of a, prefixed to a noun, is to represent 
that noun as belonging to a class ; for instance, ^ Gold is a 
metal,' means, ^Gold is one of the class of metals.' It is there- 
fore very frequently found with common nouns, that is nouns 
which are employed in a general sense, as representing a class. 

Sometimes in poetry, or in oratory, a proper name is used 
with the indefinite article, and thus receives something of the 
force of a common noun, indicating a character like that of 
the person named : — 

< Frenchmen, I'll be a Salishury to you ; ' that is, as terrible 

as the Earl of Salisbury. 
He may be a Newton or a Herschel in affairs of astro- 
nomy, but of the knowledge of affairs of the world he 
is quite ignorant. — Burlce, 

That is, ^ as profound as Newton or Herschel.' 

This use of the Indefinite Article may sometimes be employed 
with good effect ; but it has been so hackneyed by rhetoricians 
and declaimers, that a man of taste will be very careful in 
imitating this construction. 

292. As the Indefinite Article indicates one thing of a kind, 
it must not be joined with a word denoting a whole kind or 
class. We say ' the unicorn is a kind of rhinoceros,' but not 
* the "unicorn is a kind of a rhinoceros.' 

293. When two or more objects are distinctly specified, and 
attention is drawn to each, the Indefinite Article should be re- 
peated : as, 

Burleigh had a cool temper, a sound judgment, and a 
constant eye to the main chance. — Macaulay, 

294. When an indefinite article is used with a noun, and 
the noun is qualified by several adjectives, the construction 
will depend upon the force of those adjectives : — 

1. If the adjectives are all to the same purpose, so that 

one merely amplifies the other, it is sufi&cient to pre- 
fix the article to the first alone : as, 

There is about the whole book a vehement, 
contentious, replying manner. — Macaulay, 

2. But where there is a marked emphasis, or contrast, the 

article is usually repeated : as. 



152 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

He went like one that hath been stunned, 

And is of sense forlorn ; 
A sadder and a wiser man 
He rose the morrow morn. 

Coleridge, Ancient Mariner, 
There is a difference between a liberal and a prodigal 
hand. — Ben Jonson. 

295. In Early English, when a noim is qualified by the 
article a, and an adjective follows the noun, it is customary to 
repeat the article ; as, 

A monk there was, a fayre. 

Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 
Therefore he was a prickasoure a right. — Ibid. 
that is, ^ a good hard rider ; ' where, however, the more re- 
cent editions have ^ aright.' 

When several adjectives follow the noun, the article is re- 
peated with each : as, 

A Frere there was, a wanton, and a vaery, — Ibid. 
In later English, it is not uncommon to find the usual 
order — article, adjective, noun, and then another adjective 
with the article repeated : as, 

Falstaff; And yet there is a virtuous man, whom I 
have often noted in thy company, but I know not his 
name. 
Prince Henry ; What manner of man, an it like your 

majesty ? 
Falstaff I A good 'portly man, i' faith, and a corpulent, 

1st Hen, IV,, ii. 4. 

A very good piece of work, I assure you, and a merry. 

Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 2, 



POSITION 

296. When the indefinite article is used in connection with 
an adjective and a noun, where the adjective qualifies the 
noun, varieties of position are observable. 

In Early English, we sometimes find the same order as in 
our modern language — article, adjective, noun : for example, 
to hare feire burge, 
to a fair burgh. 
Layamon, Brut, 3553, vol. i. p. 151. 



ARTICLES. 153 

to hare aegene burh, 
to a high biirgh. 
Layamon, Brut^ 3610, vol. i. p. 153. 

At other times, we have the article placed between the adjec- 
tive and the noun : as, 

he heo wolde habben. 
hsege to are queene. 
he her would have. 
high to a queen. 

Ihid, 3132, vol. i. p. 133. 
that is, * for a noble queen.' 

And we may remark that similar variations occur in the 
position of pronouns : — 

his drichliche lond. 
his lordly land, 
gethele his meiden. 
' nohle his maiden, 
that is, ' his noble maiden.' 

297. Now, although the former construction has become the 
general rule in modern composition, we still have vestiges of 
the latter ; for with the words many^ such, and what joined 
with nouns, and accompanied by the article, we find the article 
in the middle place : as. 

When the merry bells ring round, 
And the jocund rebecks sound. 
To many a youth, and many a maid, 
Dancing in the chequered shade. 

Milton, U Allegro, 
I had rather be a dog and bay the moon, 
Than such a Eoman. — Julius Ccesar, iv. 2. 
What a piece of work is man ! — Hamlet, ii. 2. 

A similar order occurs, when an adjective is qualified by 
the words too, so, how, as. 

You hold too heinous a respect of grief 

King John, iii. 4. 
Ye see how large a letter I have written unto you with 
mine o^vn hand. — Galatians, vi. 11. 

298. Curiously enough, in some passages of Early English 
we find instances of the other construction ; as, 

A such will brought this lond to gronde. 

Robert of Gloucester, 
h3 



154 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Mony blessyng 
He hadde, for he delivered men of an so foul thyng. 

Bohert of Gloucester. 
A so grete beast. — Chaucer, 

Hence the phrase * many a youth ' is quite in accordance 
with the older forms of the language ; * many ' is here a true 
adjective, while the article stands between the adjective and 
the noun. 

299. Archbishop Trench {English Past and Present^ pp. 
160-162, ed. 1859) explains ' many a youth ' as arising from 
confusion of thought, and forgetfulness of original form. 

In the phrase ' many a youth,' he observes that the following 
points are perplexing to the student : — 

1. The place of the indefinite article between the adjective 
and the substantive. 

2. That it is not lawful to change the order, and to bring 
back the article to its ordinary position. We cannot 
say, ^ a many youth,' or * a many maid.' 

3. That the junction of ^ many,' an adjective of number, 
witli * youth ' and ^ maid' in the singular, seems incon- 
sistent ; for withdraw that ' a,' and it is not lawful to 
say ^ many youth,' or ^ many maid.' 

300. Now the first and second objections are met by com- 
paring the older forms of the language, where we observe a 
variation in the order of words : the article takes sometimes 
the first place, and sometimes the middle place. 

In reply to the third objection, we admit that the form 
* many youth ' is not customary, but it would be wai ranted 
by the analogy of plurimus puer, in Latin. And so Virgil : 

Crudelis ubique 
Luctus, ubique pavor, et plurima mortis imago, 

Aeneidy ii. 369. 

where Heyne paraphrases plurima mortis imago, h. e. ubique 
esedes facta cernitur ; passim cassorum cadavera projecta. 
So Ovid : 

Plurima lecta rosa est ; sunt et sine nomine flores ; 
Ipsa crocos tenues liliaque alba legit. 

Fast, iv. 441. 

301- The explanation offered by Archbishop Trench is 
this — that ' many ' was originally a substantive, the Old 
French * mesgnee,' ' mesnie,' and signified a * household,' which 



ARTICLES. 155 

meaning it constantly has in Wycliffe, and which it retained 
down to the time of Spenser : 

Then forth he fared with all his many bad. 

ShephercTs Calendar. 

We still recognise its character as a substantive in the 
phrases ' a good many,' ^ a great many,' and, in Old English 
or Scottish, even * a few many.' 

There can be no doubt that * many ' is often used as a sub- 
stantive; though it may be derived from the Anglo-Saxon 
mcenigeo, ' a multitude,' rather than from the Norman-French 
mesnie, ' meinie^ ' a household,' ' a retinue.' 

302. Then Archbishop Trench argues, truly enough, that a 
is sometimes a corrupted form of the preposition on or of: in 
this instance he considers it to stand for of, quoting Wycliffe, 

I encloside manye of seintis [^multos sanctoimni] in prisoun. 

Acts, xxvi. 10. 

He concludes, there can be no reasonable doubt that such a 
phrase as ^ many a youth ' was once ' many of youths,' or ^ a 
many o/ youths.' By much use ^ of was worn away into * a '; 
this was then assumed to be the indefinite article, that which 
was really such being dropped ; and ^ youths ' was then 
changed into ^ youth ' to match : one mistake, as is so often 
the case, being propped up and made plausible by a second, and 
thus we arrive at our present strange and perplexing idiom. 

This explanation, however ingenious, is wholly unnecessary; 
because, as we have seen, * many ' can be explained, in this 
construction, as an adjective. 

303. But in the phrases ' a many men,' ' a many ships,' ^ a 
great many years,' we cannot explain * many ' as an adjective; 
for if so, it qualifies a noun in the plural, and yet it is joined 
with * a ' (a;i = ^ one '), which is singular. 

We have seen above, that in Anglo-Saxon mcenigeo is a 
noun signifying * multitude,' ' crowd ; ' and even in modern 
English ^ the many ' bears this interpretation : 

The many rend the skies with loud applause ; 
So love was crowned, but music won the cause. 

Dryden, Alexander's Feast. 

In these phrases * a many men,' &c., I consider ^ many ' a 
noun, and the words * men,' ^ ships,' &c., as genitives by 
juxtaposition. According to tliis view, ^a many men' may 



156 . RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

be rendered in Latin multitudo hominurrij whereas ^ many a 
youth ' would be plurimus puer. 

I would apply the same principle to the phrases *a thousand 
men,' ^ a dozen bottles ; ' but I must admit that it does not 
apply to * a few horses; ' ion few (Anglo- Saxon /eaii^a) is pro- 
perly an adjective ; and I can find no authority, beyond this 
phrase or similar phrases, for the substantive use of that 
word. 

304- We must not lose sight of the fact indicated by Arch- 
bishop Trench, that a is, in some instances, a contraction of 
the Anglo-Saxon preposition an or cet. 

For example, we find the particle a before noims which are 
used distributively ; as, 

And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

Goldsmith, Deserted Village, 

where ^ a year ' means ^ for each year,' or * in each year.' So, 
too, in common conversation we say * sixpence a pound/ ^four 
shillings a bushel.' 

It is a nice question whether, in these phrases, a is an 
indefinite article or a preposition. It may possibly be the 
relic of an old preposition ; and the tendency in modern times 
to introduce the Latin per, ^ sixpence per pound,' appears to 
show the want of a preposition. 

But, on reference to the Anglo-Saxon, we find that, in 
phrases of this kind, the noun was used in the dative or some 
other case, without a preposition, and that the word celc^ ^ ilk,' 
^ each ' was frequently introduced ; as celce gear^ * ilk year,' 
' each year ; ' celce dcey, ^ ilk day,' * each day.' 

On the whole, I am inclined to think that, in these phrases, 
a is the indefinite article, meaning one ; and that * forty pounds 
a year ' means * forty pounds for one year,' i, e. ' for each and 
every year.' 

305. There is more difiiculty with those phrases where the 
particle a is joined with numerals ; as. 

And it came to pass about an eight days after these 
sayings. — Luke^ ix. 28. 

There is a vale between the mountains that duretli nere 
a four mile. 

For him was lever han at his beedes hed 
A tweedy hokes clothed in black or red. 



ARTICLES. 157 

Of Aristotle and his philosophie, 
Than robes riche, or fidel, or sautrie. 

Chaucer, Cayiterhury TaleSj Prologue^ 295. 
Here Mr. Morris reads, * Twenty bookes.' 

This construction deserves further inquiry. At present we 
leave it to the judgnaent of others. 

DEFINITE AETICLE. 

306. Etymologically, the is derived from a form of the 
demonstrative pronoun. In modern EngKsh it has no dis- 
tinction of gender, number, or case ; but in Early English the 
following inflections occur : — 

Singular, 
Masc. Fern. Neut. 

Norn, the theo (tho) thet (that). 

Gen, this thare (there) this 

Dat. thon (than, then) thare (there) thon (than, then). 

Ace, then (thane) thun thet (that). 

See Adams, Elements^ § 237. 

307. The pronunciation of the is very important, especially 
in singing. It is the before a word beginning with a consonant, 
and the before a word beginning with a vowel ; as, 

' the time,' ^ the race,' ^ the course.' 
* the inn,' * the apple,' ^ the orange.' 

308. The original use of the definite article is to * demon- 
strate,' or ' point out,' a particular object, or class of objects ; 
as, 

The man that hath no music in himself, 

Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 

Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. 

Merchant of Venice^ v. 1. 

Hence it is very commonly used in reference to some object 
previously known or mentioned ; as, ' The exhibition which 
you saw yesterday.' 

309. In some languages, the definite article is used with 
proper names of persons, who are distinguished, and well 
known to all; as 5 IlXdrw)/ Hhe Plato,' which Cicero renders 
Ille Plato, So the Italians speak of II Tasso^ and the French 
of L'Arioste. 



158 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

In English we may employ this construction in the singular, 
when a qualifying phrase is added ; as, ^ Handel was the 
Homer of music ; ' and so, 

Shakespeare was the Homer or father of our dramatic 
poets ; Jonson was the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate 
writing ; I admire him, but I love Shakespeare. 

Dry den. Essay on Dramatic Poesy, 

It will be remarked, however, that in such instances, the 
proper name seems to lose its distinctive individuality, and 
partakes of the construction of a common noun. 

In the plural, this construction is very usual : ' the Smiths,* 
* the Jenkinsons,' ^ the Macgregors,' ' the Macdonalds.' The 
chief of a Celtic clan is termed * The Macarthy,' ' The 
O'Donoghue,' ^ The Douglas,' ^ The Mackenzie ; ' and the 
reason is this, that all the members of a clan, however 
humble they might be, bore the general name of the clan ; but 
the chief was the representative clansman. 

310. With some geographical terms, as before the names of 
rivers, moimtains, and seas, we find the definite article ; as, 
' the Thames,' ' the Ehine,' ' the Alps,' ' the Baltic' But 
observe, that we never employ this construction with names 
of cities ; we never say ' the London,' or ' the Paris.' Com- 
pare the difference of construction in the ^ river Thames,' and 
the ' city 0/ London,' § 143. 

311. The definite article is used before names which denote 
a whole class, as, for example, the names of entire nations; 
often in the plural, as * the French,' ^ the EngHsh ; ' and some- 
times also in the singular, especially in rhetorical composition, 
as, '• the Briton, and the Gael.' The same construction with a 
singular noun is often found in terms used in the Natural 
Sciences, denoting a whole class of objects ; as, * the lion,' ' the 
eagle,' ^ the violet,' ' the rose.' 

Similarly, the article is used with a noun denoting a pro- 
fession, or the members of a profession viewed collectively ; 
as, ^ the bar,' ' the church,' ' the army,' * the navy.' 

Obs. — ' Man ' and * woman ' are already class nouns, and do not 
admit the article, imless we speak of particular indivi- 
duals ; so, 

What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! 
how infinite in faculties ! in form, and moving, how 
express and admirable ! In action, how like an angel I 



ARTICLES. 159 

in apprehension, how like a god 1 the beauty of the 
world ! the paragon of animals ! And yet, to me, what 
is this quintessence of dust ? Man delights not me, nor 
woman neither ; though, by your smiling, you seem to 
say sor. — Hamlet, ii. 2. 

312. • It is not the custom, in English, to employ the definite 
article before nouns denoting an abstract notion ; we say 
* truth,' ' virtue,' * pride ' — not ' the virtue,' ' the pride.' This 
enables us to make a distinction, which is not observed in 
some other languages ; for, with us, * truth ' means ' truth 
absolutely considered,' 'truth in the abstract; ' but Hhe truth' 
means ' the truth mentioned before,' or some particular aspect 
of truth, * mathematical, philosophical, or religious truth.' 

The French, on the contrary, use the definite article before 
abstract noiuis; and I suspect that some phrases in older 
English, which are condemned as ungrammatical, have come 
down to us from the Norman-French. For example, 

And I persecuted this way unto the death. — Acts xxii. 4. 

where Dr. Lowth remarks, 'the Apostle does not mean any 
particular sort of death, but death in general; the definite 
article therefore is improperly used. It ought to be unto 
death, without any article ; agreeably to the original, ayj)*^ 
davcLTov.^ Compare 2 Chron. xxxii. 24, ' In those days 
Hezekiah was sick to the death ;' and Eev. xii. 11, 'And they 
loved not their lives unto the death.' The French would be 
a la mort. See also Prov. xxix. 21, 'He that delicately 
bringeth up his servant from a child shall have him become 
his son at the length.* 

313. The is often used where we might expect a possessive 
pronoun ; and this too, among others, may be a construction 
derived from the French : as, 

Her corpse was the object of unmanly and dastardly ven- 
geance ; the head was severed from the body and set 
upon a pole. — W, Irving. 

I have reserved to myself seven thousand men, who have 
not bowed the knee to Baal. — Romans, xi. 4. 

314. When two or more objects are distinctly specified, the 
definite article, or some word equally distinctive, should be 
used before each : as, 

I was with Hercules and Cadmus once. 
When in a wood of Crete they bayed the bear 



160 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

With hounds of Sparta ; never did I hear 
Such gallant chiding ; for, beside the groves, 
The skies, the fountains, every region near 
Seemed all one mutual cry ; I never heard 
So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. 

Midsummer Night's Dream^ iv. 1. 
Hence in the following sentence we observe an ambiguity : 
' The Chancellor informed the Queen of it, and she imme- 
diately sent for the secretary and treasurer.' Here, it is not 
certain whether the secretary and treasurer be not one and 
the same person ; at all events, it is possible to put that 
meaning upon the words. If we wish to imply that two dis- 
tinct persons were summoned, we should repeat the article : 
' for the secretary and the treasurer.' 

315. When two or more noims are used in opposition, 
qualifying some other noun, the article is placed before the 
first alone, of the nouns in opposition : 

He sends a letter to Mr. Larkins, the bribe-agent and 
broker on this occasion. — Burke, 

Similarly, when several adjectives qualify a noun, the definite 
article is usually employed before the first alone : as, 
If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, 
The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. 

Pope, Essay on Man, iv. 
But if we wish to lay emphasis upon the adjectives, we 
may repeat the article before each : as, 

A name at the sound of which all India turns pale ; the 
most wicked, the most atrocious, the boldest and most 
dexterous villain that that country ever produced. — 
Burke, 

316. When the adjectives cannot be regarded as describing 
one and the same thing, the article must be repeated if the 
noun is in the singular, or it must stand before the first ad- 
jective only, if the noun is in the plural : as. 

The third and fifth chapters of John. 
or, 

, The third and the fifiih chapter of John. 

POSITION. 

317. When the definite article and an adjective qualify a 
noun, the usual order is — ^article, adjective, noun ; sometimes, 



VERBS. 161 

however, the noun stands first, followed by the article and the 
adjective j.^ as, 

Alonzo the brave, and the fair Imogene. 

Lewis, 

When the words all and both are used to qualify a noui^, 
the article occupies the middle place ; as, 

All the contrivances which we are acquainted with are 
directed to beneficent purposes. — Paley, 

He had disobliged both the parties whom he wished to 
reconcile. — Macaulay. 



Chapter X. 
VERBS. 

318. Grammarians have not been very successful in their 
attempts to define the ' verb.' 

Plato recognised only two parts of speech, the Name (ovo/jlo), and the 
Saying (^rj/jia). And in fact, when we say * Light shines,' light is the 
Name of the thing whereof we speak, while shines is our Saying about 
that thing. 

When we are speaking the truth, or what we believe to he true, our 
Saying is the same as our Thinking. Hence we may conclude, that the 
Name and the Thought are the two main pillars that support the 
sentence. 

The Name and the Saying are grammatically termed the Noun and 
the Verb. 

But if the term 'Verb' {verbum, *word') is meant as a translation 
of the term pTJH-a, it is a questionable translation. We might rather 
expect Dictum ('Saying,' or ' thing said'), than Verhum (' word'). 

There appears to be no truth in the common assertion that the Verb 
is the chief Word in a sentence. There are two principal words in 
every sentence, and the Name is as important as the Saying ; for if 
there be no Name, there is nothing to speak about. 

Neither is it true that there can be no sentence without a Verb ; for 
in Hebrew and in Latin hundreds of sentences can be produced 
wherein no verb is found. But then, the grammarians maintain that in 
such instances a Verb is understood ; that is, they lay down a defini-- 
tion dogmatically, and then they explain away every passage which 
does not conform to their definition. 

319. Some grammarians have founded their definitions upon 
the meaning of the Verb as a word. As in the old definition, 



162 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

* A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; * 
or as in the theory wherein ^ motion ' and ^ rest ' are #onsidered 
the distinctive characteristics of verbs. 

Others have founded their definitions upon the function of 
the verb, that is, upon its power in a sentence ; as, ^ A verb is 
a part of speech which makes an assertion.' 

320. I. Definitions founded upon Signification, 

(1). * A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer/ 
' There are three kinds of verbs. Active, Passive, and Neuter verbs.' 
— Lowth, English Grammar^ p. 45. 

(2). Theory of Sir Graves C, Haughton. 

* In the infancy of language the Verb merely denoted the modes of 
action peculiar to the simplest objects of nature — as, to fly, to run, to 
strike, &c. ; but in process of time, as language became perfect, the 
Verb adapted itself to the expression of every want of the human mind, 
and in this state it is considered as denoting action, being, or suffering. 
But it is solely by a metaphorical use that language is fitted for de- 
scribing abstract ideas ; and for this purpose the Verb divests itself of 
its essential attribute, which is motion in a physical sense. 

' If a verb denotes any particular kind of motion, depending or con- 
ceived to depend on the will of the agent, it is Active, but Intransitive ; 
that is, it implies voluntary motion, which is commonly called Action, 
as '* he runs." And when the motion passes on to an object on which 
it reposes, it is Active and Transitive, as "he strikes the child." 

* Motion is the essential attribute of the Verb ; and those who hold it 
to be a mere connective, have not perhaps sufficiently considered its 
origin ; and have been led to observe its apparent use, which is often 
metaphorical, rather than its essential quality, which indicates different 
kinds of motion.' 

' After use had first fijxed the forms of the Verb, the rest were easily 
brought into existence, by that love of analogy which is inseparably 
connected with the nature of the human mind.' — Preface to a Dictionary, 
Be7igali and Sanskrit, by Sir Graves C. Haughton, 

(3) Professor Key gives no general definition of the Verb ; but his 
whole doctrine depends upon the theory of ' motion ' and * rest.' He 
says, in his Latin Grammar, §§ 367-385 : 

'An active verb denotes action or movement: as caed, *'cut" or 
"strike;" curr, "run." 

* The person (or thing) from whom the action proceeds is called the 
nominative to the verb. 

* A transitive verb is one which admits an object or accusative after 
it: as caedit puerum, " he strikes the boy." 

* An intransitive verb is one which does not admit an accusative ; as, 
currit, " he runs." 

* A static verb denotes a state ; as es, " be " ; dormi, " sleep " ; vigila^ 
" be awake " ; jace^ ** lie " ; metu, " fear." * 



Wj 



VERBS. 163 



321. n. Definitions founded upon the Function of the Verb, 

(1). Sir John Stoddart says : — 

' The Verb expresses that faculty of the mind by which we assert 
that anything exists or does not exist. And as all existence is contem- 
plated by the mind, either simply as existence, or in one of its two 
distinguishable states, action or passion ; therefore, the common defi- 
nition of the verb is sufficiently accurate — namely, that " the verb is a 
word which signifies to do, to suffer, or to be." 

• Yet we must observe, that the essence of the verb does not consist in 
the mere signification or naming of existence, or of action, or of passion; 
because, so far as that goes, the verb is a mere noun. For Mr. Tooke's 
observation is strictly correct, that " the verb is a noun and something 
more." 

' This " something more," which is the true characteristic of the 
verb, is the 'power of assertion. It is by this peculiarity alone that 
the verb is distinguished from the noun.' 

Sir John Stoddart then reviews several objections : — 

Objection 1. * We may assert without the express use of verbs. 
Numerous sentences, with the verb omitted, may be produced from 
Hebrew, Latin, and English.' 

Answer, 'True; but then the verb is understood^ 

[This is begging the question.] 

Objection 2. ' That connection^ not '' assertion," is the distinguishing 
characteristic of verbs.' 

Answer. ' Truly, the verb connects, but it does more ; connection 
is a secondary characteristic' 

Objection 3. ' That attribution is the proper function of a verb.' 
Answer. ' But this is an accidental circumstance applying to some 
verbs, not as to verbs, but in regard to the nouns which they involve.' 

Objection 4. ' That to be significant of time is the characteristic of 
the verb.' 

Answer. ' No doubt time is a necessary adjunct of assertion, but 
it is only secondary. Assertion is the appropriate function of the 
verb.' 

Objection 6. * That the Infinitive mood asserts nothing.' This 
objection is urged by Dr. Lowth (English Grammar, p. 54) : ' That the 
participle is a mere mode of the verb is manifest, if our definition of 
a verb be admitted. For it signifies being, doing, or suffering, with 
the designation of time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be 
made to consist in affirmation, not only the participle will be excluded 
from its place in the verb, but the Infinitive itself also ; which certain 
ancient grammarians of great authority held to be alone the genuine 
verb, denying that title to all other modes.' 

A7isiver. ' The Infinitive is not properly a verb, but rather a Verbal 
Noun C'Ovofj.a p-nyLariKov)' — Stoddart, Universal Grammar Encyclo' 
^(sdia Metropolitana, pp. 45-47. 



164 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



322. (2). Theory of Mr, Garnett 

In the Proceedings of the Philological Society, vol. iii., we find 
several papers by the late Kev. Richard Garnett, on the * Nature and 
Analysis of the Verb/ These and other articles have been reprinted 
by his son, under the title of 'Philological Essays' (Wilhams and 
Norgate, 1859). 

According to the view taken by Mr. G-arnett, • the true definition of 
a verb appears to be, that it is a term of relation or 'predicate in gram- 
matical combination with a subject, commonly pronominal. In some 
languages, any word in any given part of speech is capable of being 
made the basis of a verb, and of being regularly conjugated through 
moods, tenses, and persons ; in others this license is considerably 
restricted.' 

After remarking that there has been much discrepancy of opinion as 
to what constitutes a verb, and in what essential particular it differs 
from a noun, he observes, ' that much of the misapprehension and error 
prevalent on this subject has originated in confounding the finite verb 
with the root from which it is formed. It has been admitted that the 
essence of this part of speech consists in predication or assertion, a 
view to which no objection can be made. But this immediately de- 
stroys its claim to be considered as a primitive element of speech. 
There can be no predication in the concrete without a given subject ; 
every verb therefore must have its subject — that is, speaking gram- 
matically, it must be in a definite person. The term expressing this 
person is an element perfectly distinct from the root ; and when it is 
taken away, there is no predication, and consequently no verb. In 
short, a verb is not a simple but a complex term, and therefore no 
primary part of speech.' 

But while Mr. Garnett considers that the root or predicative part of 
a simple verb is, or originally was, an abstract noun, he differs from 
those philologists who analyse the verb as consisting of a noun con- 
nected with a subject or nominative by means of a verb substantive 
understood. He denies that ' Ego (sum) somnium ' can be brought to 
mean *Ego somnio.' He says: 'Grammarians have not been able to 
divest themselves of the idea that the subject of the verb must neces- 
sarily be a nominative ; and when it was ascertained that the distinctive 
terminations of the verb are in fact personal pronouns, they persisted 
in regarding those pronouns as nominatives^ abbreviated indeed from 
the fuller forms, but still performing the same functions.' 

Mr. Garnett holds that the personal terminations are pronouns, not 
however nominatives in apposition, but oblique cases, or (as he terms it) 
4^7^ regimine. He proves his point by an appeal to many languages ; 
but no part of the proof is more satisfactory than his reference to the 
Welsh. He says : ' The personal terminations in Welsh are pronouns, 
and they are more clearly so than the corresponding endings in Sanskrit. 
But it is an important fact, that they are evidently in statu regiminiSj 
not in apposition or concord ; in other words, they are not nominatives, 
but oblique cases, precisely such as are affixed to various prepositions. 
For example, the second person plural does not end with the nominative 
chwif but with ech, wchy och, ych^ which last three forms are also found 



VERBS. 165 

coalescing with various prepositions, iwchy "to you/* ^noch, "in you," 
vyrthych^ " through you." 

* Now the roots of Welsh verbs are confessedly nouns, generally of 
abstract signification; as, for example, dysg is both doctrina, and the 
second person imperative doce. Dysg-och, or -wch, is not, therefore, 
docetis or docebitis vos; but doctrina vestricm, " teaching of or hy you." 
This leads to the important conclusion, that a verb is nothing but a 
noun combined with an oblique case of a personal pronoun, virtually in- 
cluding in it a connecting preposition. This is what constitutes the real 
copula between the subject and the attribute. Doctrina ego is a logical 
absurdity ; but doctrina ')nei, *' teaching of me," necessarily includes in 
it the proposition ego doceo, enunciated in a strictly logical and un- 
equivocal form.' 

IVIr. Grarnett compares the prepositional forms with the verbal forms, 
thus: 

Fr&positional forms : 

er-ov ,,....* for me.* 

er-ot * for thee/ 

er-o * for him.* 

er-om * for us/ 

er-och * for you/ 

er-ynt . . . . . * for them.' 

Verbal forms : 

car-ov * I will love/ 

car-ot * thou wilt love/ 

car-o * he will love/ 

car-om 'we will love.* 

car-och .,...* you will love/ 
car-ont '^ 

OP >....* they will love/ 

car-wynt J 

And he concludes : * No one capable of divesting his mind of pre- 
conceived systems, who compares the Welsh prepositional forms with 
the verbal forms, will deny the absolute formal identity of the respec- 
tive sets of endings, or refuse to admit that the exhibition of parallel 
phenomena of languages of all classes, and in all parts of the world, 
furnishes a ^tvon^ jprimd facie ground for the belief of a general prin- 
ciple of analogy running thro^lgh all.' — G-amett, Philological Essay s^ 
pp. 289-342. 

323. Amid these diversities, we shall proceed rather by 
way of enumeration than by way of definition. And we say : 

I. With regard to meaning ; 

A Verb is a word which denotes an action, or a state 
of being. 

n. With regard to function^ the Verb has several powers : 

(1). The Indicative mood is used to make an asser- 
tion. 



166 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

(2). The Subjunctive mood is used to make a modi- 
fied assertion. 

(3). The Imperative mood is used to express com- 
mands, exhortations, or entreaties. 

(4). The Infinitive mood and the Gerunds are Verbal 
Substantives. 

(5). The Participles are Verbal Adjectives. 



CLASSIFICATION. 

324. We divide verbs into two classes: (1) Transitive; 
(2) Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb generally requires an object to complete 
the meaning, and is commonly followed by an Objective— -that 
is, a substantive in the objective case. 

An Intransitive Verb frequently furnishes a complete mean- 
ing, and does not, as a general riile, admit an objective case. 

Transitive Verbs may be used in three relations, which are 
termed Active, Passive, and Reflective. 

In some languages, there are distinct forms, involving 
changes of termination, to denote the change of relation. 
These forms are commonly termed Voices ; and in Greek 
grammar, the Reflective form is called the Middle Voice, as 
though it held a middle place between Active and Passive. 

In English we have a distinct form for the Active Voice of 
verbs Transitive : as, 

WiUiam loves Mary. 
William loved Mary. 

The Passive relation is denoted by the verb he coupled with 
the perfect participle, which, in Transitive Verbs, has a passive 
signification ; thus, 

Mary is loved by William. 

The Reflective relation is denoted by the word self, used in 
composition with certain pronouns, and governed by a Transi- 
tive Verb, in the Active Voice ; as, 

William loves himself, 
Mary loves herself 

In Early English, the personal pronouns me, hiniy heTf &c., were used 
with a reflective force, where we employ myself, himself , &c. ; as, 



VERBS. 167 

* I was weary forwandred, 
And went one to reste.' 

Piers Plowman, Vision, 
i.e. * to rest myself.' 

In poetry, the same usage still prerails, as 

* I'll lay me down, and die.' 
Intransitive Verbs are used in one form only, which corre- 
sponds, in point oiform, with the Active voice of verbs Transi- 
tive; as, 

The boy runs. 
The girls laugh. 
Many Transitive verbs in English are used Intransitively ; as, 
He Jro^e the glass . . . . {Transitive), 

The glass hrohe {Intransitive), 

He rolled the stone .... {Transitive), 
The stone rolled {Intransitive), 

Many Intransitive verbs, compounded with a preposition, 
become Transitive. And since in English the preposition fre- 
quently follows the verb, students are apt to forget that the 
verb, in such cases, becomes a Compound Verb ; so, 

He laughed {Intransitive), 

They laughed at him . . . {Transitive), 

Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by a noun in the 
objective case, when that noun bears a meaning akin to the 
signification of the verb ; as, ^ to sleep a sleep,' * to run a race,' 
* to die the death.' 

In Latin grammar this objective is called the ' cognate accu- 
sative.' 

CONJUaATION. 

325. To conjugate literally means to yoTce together ; and, as 
used by grammarians, it means to place under one view the 
variations (or inflections) in the form of a verb. 

Hence Conjugation is the arrangement of the several in- 
flections of a verb, in its different Voices, Moods, Tenses, 
Numbers, and Persons. 

Until late years, English verbs were commonly divided into 
two classes, termed Regular and Irregular, The distinction 
was thus explained : 

Kegular Verbs are those in which the past tense and the 
perfect participle are formed by adding to the verb -edj 
or -d only, when the verb ends in -e ; as call, calUed ; 
love^ love-d. 



168 BULES ANB CAUTIONS. 

Irregular verbs are those that vary from this rule, in 
either or both instances. — See Lowth, English Gram- 
mar, p. 71. 

More recent grammarians have contended that verbs of the 
latter kind are not really irregular, but that they are formed 
according to rules specially applicable to themselves. And 
since the verbs termed Eegular are formed by addition to the 
root, while the so-called Irregular verbs are formed, in most 
instances, by internal change of the root- vowel — as take, took ; 
shake, shook \ the Eegulars have been called Weak verbs, 
and the Irregulars Strong verbs. 

But other grammarians consider these terms fanciful and 
objectionable. They remark, truly enough, that all deriva- 
tives, all verbs borrowed from other languages, in short all 
new verbs, are formed in the first method, by adding -ed or -d. 
It is also a fact, that many verbs, which once formed their 
past tense by change of vowel, now take the form in -ed, -d, 
or -t ; as Up, step, mew, snew, now take the form leapt, slept, 
mowed, snowed. 

Hence we may infer, ' that there is a tendency for the one 
form to be displaced by the other ; and the more we compare 
the older stages of our language with the newer, the more 
clearly we see that such is actually the case.' — Latham, Eng- 
lish Grammar, § 136. 

For these reasons, some grammarians prefer the terms New 
and Old Conjugation ; assigning Regular verbs to the New, 
and Irregular verbs to the Old. But these terms are liable to 
mislead the student, for many verbs in the New conjugation 
are historically as old as verbs in the other. 

326. We have, then, the following comparison of terms :— 

1. Regular . . . Weak . . . New 

2. Irregular . . . Strong . . . Old. 

Now, we observe that all these terms involve a theory ; and, 
as a matter of course, the advocates of each fresh proposal 
condemn their predecessors ; because, unless the former terms 
were objectionable, there was no necessity for change. But, 
in the present state of our knowledge, we should beware of 
giving names which involve any theory whatever, because 
future investigations may prove that our tenns have been un- 
advisedly imposed. 

It appears safer to divide verbs into the First and Second 
conjugations. 



VERBS. 169 



VEEBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

327. Verbs of the First Conjugation form their Past Tense 
and Perfect Participle by adding -ed to the root of the verb, 
or 'd alone, if the verb itself ends in -e : as, 

call call-ed call-ed 

move move-d move-d. 

But certain changes take place, according to the letters in 
which the verb itself terminates. 

When the verb ends in -?/, with a consonant immediately 
preceding, the y is turned into i in the past tense and the per- 
fect participle : as, 

reply replied replied. 

But if the -y be preceded by a vowel, -ed is generally 
added : as, 

delay delayed delayed 

convey conveyed conveyed. 

Yet not always ; for sometimes the e is dropped, and the y is 
changed into i : as, 

lay laid laid 

pay paid paid 

say . said said. 

Sometimes, too, authors differ in their way of writing : from 
the verb stay^ some will write stayed, others staid, 

328. With reference to verbs ending in a single consonant, 
the rules are uncertain. We are told that when the verb 
ends in a single consonant, which has a single vowel imme- 
diately before it, the final consonant is doubled in the past 
tense and the perfect participle : as, 

rap rapped rapped. 

But this rule holds good only for words of one syllable ; for 
with verbs of more than one syllable, the consonant is not 
doubled, unless the accent be on the last syllable : thus we 
write, 

open opened opened, 

but 

refer referred referred. 

Yet, even here, usage is not consistent. There is a tendency 
to double the letters Z, j9, and t : we constantly see levellecL 
bigotted, rivetted, worshipped. Unless my memory deceives 

I 



170 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

me, I have seen heiiefitted in a leading article of the Times, 
The word unparalleled is constantly written with one I be- 
fore -ed^ to avoid an accumulation of consonants. The Ame- 
ricans, following Dr. Webster, generally observe the strict rule, 
and do not double the consonant, unless the accent falls upon 
the last syllable of the root. 

329. But we have to consider the doctrine of contraction. 
In all languages, there is a tendency to abbreviation, and we 
generally pronounce more briefly than we write ; we say ZovW, 
mov'd for loved^ moved. Archdeacon Hare proposed that, fol- 
lowing the example of Spenser and Milton, we should adopt 
that form of writing which expresses the sound. For example, 
Spenser writes looTct^ pluckt^ nurst, kist ; and Milton has 
hurld^ worshipty confest. According to this view the rule 
would be, * where e is omitted in the past tense and perfect 
participle, the d becomes t after I, m, n, /?, Jc, /, gh, and s ; as 
dealt, dreamt, learnt, crept, crackt, reft, sought, hist,'' At pre- 
sent our usage is not uniform ; some write dropt, others 
dropped', and many who write dropt, would scruple to use 
wisht and jumpt, for wished and jumped. To show the incon- 
sistency of our custom, Archdeacon Hare quotes this stanza 
from Coleridge's Genevieve : 

Her bosom heaved, she stepped aside, 
As conscious of my look she stepped 
Then suddenly, with timorous eye, 
She fled to me and wept. 
There is no reason why we should not write stept, just as we 
write wept. But the English language is full of these incon- 
sistencies. 

If the root of a verb ends in a double consonant, one of the 
two is always rejected before -d or -t : as, 

dwell dwelt dwelt 

spill spilt spilt. 

Hence if the e of dropped is omitted, the word becomes dropt, 

330. Many verbs of this conjugation, besides adding -d or 
r-t, admit changes of the internal vowel. We therefore make 
the following divisions : 

I. Verbs forming their past tense and perfect participle by 
adding -d or -t, and by shortening the vowel of the root. 
(1) Verbs ending in a vowel : 

flee fled fled 

lose lost lost. 



VERBS. 171 

(2) Verbs ending in -Z : 

deal dealt dealt 

feel felt felt. 

In dealt the shortening is not exhibited to the eye ; but the 
word is pronounced delt, 

(3) Verb ending in -n : 

mean meant meant. 

(4) Verbs ending in -p : 

creep crept crept 

keep kept kept 

sleep slept slept 

sweep swept swept 

weep wept wept. 

In bereave and leave there is not only a shortening of the 
vowel, but a change of consonant, v'd becoming/'^: 
bereave bereft bereft 

leave left left. 

331. IL Verbs forming their past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple, by adding -d or -t, and by changing the vowel of the 
root : as, 

sell sold sold 

tell told told. 

With verbs ending in ^, g, ch, not only is there a change of 
vowel, but the final consonant of the root is changed into gh, 
(1) Verbs ending in -k : 





seek sought 
think thought 
work wrought 


sought 

thought 

wrought 


(2) 


Verb ending in -g (or rather 
bring brought 


in -ng) : 
brought. 


(3) 


Verbs ending in -ch : 
catch caught 

be-seech be-sought 
teach taught 


caught 

be-sought 

taught. 



In Old English, the verb reach was conjugated, 

reach raught raught. 

So Chaucer says of the Prioresse, 

Full semely after her mete she raught. 

Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 
i2 



172 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

In the verb huy (A. S. hycg-an) the consonant g does not 
appear, as a final, in the present tense ; but it finds place in 
the past tense and the perfect participle : 

buy bought bought. 

In the verb fight^ the letter t is an original part of the root ; 
so that, strictly, this verb ought to be classed with verbs 
ending in -t, — See § 333. 

The verb light^ where the -Ms part of the root, is con- 
jugate 

light lighted lighted. 

But sometimes the essential character of the -t is forgotten, 
and contraction takes place : 

light lit lit. 

Verbs ending in -d or -t, 

332. Special attention must be paid to verbs the root of 
which ends in -d or -t. If, for example, we take the verbs 
which are said not to change their form in the past tense and 
perfect participle, we find that they all end in -d or -L 

(1) Verbs ending in -d : 



rid 


rid 


rid 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


spread 


spread 


spread. 


rbs ending in 


't: 




burst 


burst 


burst 


cast 


cast 


cast 


cost 


cost 


cost 


cut 


cut 


cut 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


knit 


knit 


knit 


let 


let 


let 


put 


put 


put 


set 


set 


set 


shut 


shut 


shut 


slit 


slit 


slit 


split 


split ~ 


split 


sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust. 



Dr. Lowth thinks that these forms have resulted from con- 



VERBS. 173 

traction ; hence he considers them not as irregular, but as 
contracted. — See Lowth, English Grammar^ pp. 73, 74. In 
fact, not being able to pronounce such an accumiilation of 
consonants as hurst'' d or burs ft, we drop the last letter 
altogether. 

333. In the following verbs, the final -d of the root is 
changed into -^ in the past tense and the perfect participle : 



bend 


bent 


bent 


build 


built 


built 


gild 


gilt 


gilt 


gird 


girt 


girt 


lend 


lent 


lent 


rend 


rent 


rent 


send 


sent 


sent 


spend 


spent 


spent. 



In some instances -d or -f remains throughout, but the in- 
ternal vowel is shortened : 

bleed bled bled 

breed bred bred 

feed fed fed 

lead led led 

read read read (pronounced red) 

speed sped sped 

meet met met. 

In Jiffht the internal vowel is changed : 
fight fought fought. 

VEEBS OF THE SECOND CONJUOATION. 

334. Verbs of the Second Conjugation form the past tense 
by change of internal vowel, that is, by changing the vowel 
or diphthong in the root of the verb ; as, break, broke ; drink, 
drank; steal, stole. 

The perfect participle, in verbs of this conjugation, is gene- 
rally formed by adding -en or -n, with or without change of 
internal vowel. 
Examples : 

break broke (or brake) broken 

choose chose chosen 

cleave clove (or clave) cloven 

drive drove (or drave) driven 

eat ate (or eat) eaten 



174, 



h 



RULES AND CAVTIOSS. 



fall 


feU 


fallen 


be-faU 


be-fell 


be-fallen 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


give 
for-give 


gave 
for-gave 


given 
for-given 


rise 


rose 


risen 


a-rise 


a-rose 


a-risen 


for-sake 


for-sook 


for-saken 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


speak 
steal 


spoke (or spake) 
stole 


spoken 
stolen 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strike 


struck 


stricken {or struck) 


take 


took 


taken 


thrive 


throve 


thriven 


weave 


wove 


woven 


wake 
a-wake 


woke 
a-woke 


waken [or waked) 
a-waken {or awaked). 


\35. When the verb ends in w, y^ 


, or a vowel, the e of th< 


feet participle is omitted : as, 




blow 


blew 


blown 


crow 


crew 


[crown] {or crowed) 


fly 


flew 


flown 


grow 
know 


grew 
knew 


grown 
known 


lie 


lay 


lain {or lien) 


see 


saw 


seen 


slay 
throw 


slew 
threw 


slain 
thrown. 



The verb show had an old form of the past tense shew^ for 
which showed is now used. The participle shown is still 
preserved. 

The same rule aff*ects verbs ending in -r : as, 

bear {carry) bore {or bare) borne 

for-bear for-bore for-borne 

bear {bring forth) bore {or bare) born 

shore {or sheared) shorn 
swore sworn 

tore torn 



shear 
swear 
tear 
wear 



worn. 



336. With the following verbs, ending in -d or -de^ t or 



VERBS, 175 

-te, the consonant is doubled before the termination -en of the 
perfect participle. 

(1) Verbs ending in -d : 



bid bade 

for-bid for-bade 

tread trod 




bidden 
for-bidden 
trodden. 


(2) Verbs ending in -de : 

chide chid (or chode) chidden 
hide hid hidden 
ride rode ridden 
slide slid slidden. 


The verb abide is conjugated, 
abide abode 




abode. 


(3) Verbs ending in -t : 

get got (or 
sit sat 
spit spat 
Aoot shot 


gat) 


gotten (or got) 
sitten {or sat) 
spitten 
shotten (or shot). 


The verb heat exhibits no change in 
beat beat 


the past tense : 
beaten. 


(4) Verbs ending in -^e : 
bite bit 
smite smote 
write wrote 




bitten 

smitten 

written. 



337. With verbs ending in -n or -ne, -m or -me, the prin- 
ciple of contraction seems applicable, and the termination -en 
is omitted altogether. If we compare our verb begin with the 
German 

beginnen begann begonnen, 

we may reasonably conjecture that our participle begun has 
been derived by contraction from begunnen to begunn^n, and 
finally to begun, 

(1) Verbs ending in -n : 

be-gin be-gan be-gun 

run ran run 

spin span spun 

win won won. 

(2) Verb ending in -ne : 

shine shone shone. 



176 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



swum. 



come 
be-come. 



(3) Verb ending in -m : 

swim swam 

(4) Verbs ending in -me : 

come came 

be-come be-came 

333. The same principle seems to be applicable in cases 
where the letter n immediately precedes a final consonant, as 
-nk, -ng. 

(1) Verbs ending in -nk : 

drink drank drunken (or drunk) 

shrink shrank shrunken {or shrunk) 
sink sank sunken {or sunk) 

slink slank slunk 

stink stank stunk. 

(2) Verbs ending in -ng : 

cling 
fling 
ring 
sing 
sling 
spring 
sting 
string 
swing 
wring 
The verb hang is conjugated, 

hang hung hung ; 

and also, according to the first conjugation, 

hang hanged hanged. 

The latter is used in speaking of persons, the former in refer-p 
ence to things. 

To these we may add verbs ending in 

bind bound 

find found 

grind ground 

wind wound 

I conjecture that the omission of the termination -en may be 

due to the presence of n before the final consonant ; and I am 

inclined to extend the same principle to verbs ending in -Id : as, 

hold held held {or holden) 

be-hold be-held be-held {or be-holden). 



clang 

[flang] {or flung) 


clung 
flung 


rang 


rung 


sang {or sung) 


sung 


[slang] {or slung) 


slung 


sprang {or sprung) 


sprung 


stung 


stung 


strung 


strung 


swung 


swung 


wrung 


wrung. 



-nd : 
boimd 
found 
ground 
wound. 



TERBS. 



177 



lEREaULAKS. 

339. In the following verbs we find an apparent mixture 
of the two conjugations ; the past tense ends in -ed^ as with 
verbs of the first, and the perfect participle in -en or -w, as 
with verbs of the second conjugation : 



grave 




graved 


graven 


hew 




hewed 


hewn 


load {or 


lade) 


loaded 


laden {or loaded) 


mow 




mowed 


mown 


rive 




rived 


riven 


saw 




sawed 


sawn 


sew 




sewed 


sewn 


shave 




shaved 


shaven {or shaved) 


sow 




sowed 


sown {or sowed) 


swell 




swelled 


swollen {or swelled) 


wax 




waxed 


waxen {or waxed). 



The verb stand is conjugated 

stand stood 



stood. 



Some would say that the letter n is dropped in the past tense 
and perfect participle ; others, perhaps more correctly, that n 
is a strengthening letter in the present. 

The verb dig exhibits similarity of form in the past tense, 
and the perfect participle : 

dig dug dug. 

340. Caution, — The confusion between lie and lay should 
be carefully avoided. 

Lie is intransitive, and its past tense is lay. 
Lay is transitive, and its past tense is laid. 

Examples of usage : 

To-day, I lay the book upon the table, and I lie down 
upon the sofa. Yesterday, I laid the book upon the 
table, and I lay down upon the sofa. 

The old participle perfect of lie is lien : as, ^ Though ye 
have lien among the pots ; * but the form now commonly used 
\^ lain. The perfect participle of lay is laid. 

341. Apart from the use of auxiliaries, which we shall con- 
sider hereafter, the forms of our verbs are simple, and the 
inflections are few. We shall take an example of each con- 
jugation. 

i3 



178 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

' 1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

X 3. He loves. . 3. They love. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

3 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Future Tense. 
[No distinct inflection.] 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou love, 2. You love, 

3. He love. 3. They love. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural . 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou loved, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Future Tense. 
[No distinct inflection.] 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

Love. 

Infinitive Mood [to] love.* 

Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . , loving. 

Gerund with to to love.f 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present loving. ^ 

Perfect loved. 

* The-eign to is enclosed in brackets [to], in order to show that it may be omitted 
in certain constructions, 
t The G-erundial prefix, to, t is never omitted. 



VERBS. 179 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

^ 1. I write, 1. We write, 

2. Thou writest, 2, You write, 

2 3. He writes. 3. They write. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I wrote, 1. We wrote, 

2. Thou wrotest, 2. You wrote, 

3. He wrote. 3. They Avrote. 

Future Tense. 
[No distinct inflection.] 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I write, 1. We write, 

2. Thou write, 2. You write, 

3. He write. 3. They write. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I wrot€, • 1. We wrote, 

2. Thou wrote, 2. You wrote, 

3. He wrote, 3. They wrote. 

Future Tense. 
[No distinct inflection.] 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Write. 

Infinitive Mood [to] write. 

Gei^nd (or Infinitive) in -ing . . writing. 

Gerund with to to write. 

PARTICIPLES. 

^ Present writing. 

(^^ Perfect written. 



180 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

342. The whole number of verbs in the English language 
has been estimated at upwards of four thousand. Most of 
them belong to the First Conjugation ; those of the Second 
Conjugation barely amount to one hundred. Even of these, 
only a certain number exhibit a distinct form in the past 
tense and the perfect participle ; while the general bent of 
the language is towards the other form, which makes the past 
tense and the perfect participle the same. 

This general tendency of the language has given rise, as Dr. Lowth 
thinks, to great corruption, and to confusion of the past tense with the 
perfect participle, in some of these verbs ; as ' he begun' for ' he began / 
' he run ' for '■ he ran;' he drunk'' for ' he drank ;' the participle being 
used instead of the past tense. And much more frequently the form of 
the past tense is found, where we should expect the participle ; as, ' I 
had wrote,'' ' it was wrote' for ' I had written," ' it was written/ * I have 
drank," for ' I have drunk/ bid for bidde^i, got for gotten, &c. 

This confusion, adds the Doctor, prevails in common discourse, and 
is too much authorised by the example of some of our best writers; as, 
He would have spoke. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, x. 517. 

Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 

Ibid, i. 621. 

And envious darkness, ere they could return, 
Had stole them from me. 

Id. Comus, 195. 

(Where the Author's MS. and the first edition read siolne.) 
And in triumph had rode. 

Id. Paradise Begained, iii. 36. 

I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola. 

As You Like It, iv. 1. 

Then finish what you have began. 
But scribble faster, if you can. 

Dryden, Poems, vol. ii. p. 172. 

Rapt into future times the bard begun 
* A Virgin shall conceive, a Virgin bear a Son.' 

Pope, Messiah. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, 

And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. 

Id. Essay on Criticism, 

No civil broils have since his death arose. 

Dryden, on Oliver Cromwell. 

The sun has rose, and gone to bed, 
Just as if Partridge were not dead. 

Swift. 

Some philosophers have mistook. 

Id. Tale of a Tub, § ix. 



VERBS. 181 

Why, all the souls that were, were forfeit once ; 
And He, that might the Vantage best have tooky 
Found out the remedy. 

Measure for Measure, ii. 2. 

Silence 
Was took ere she was ware. 

Milton, Comus, 557. 

A fine constitution, when it has been shook by the iniquity of former 
administrations. . . . — Bolingbroke, Fatriot King, See Lowth, English 
Grammar, pp. 94-96. 

To these we may add a stanza from Byron's Hebrew Melodies: 
And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail ; 
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
And the might of the Gentiles unsmote by the sword, 
Has melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. 

Home Tooke, opposing the view taken by Dr. Lowth, contends that the 
Past Participle is the Fast Tense Adjective, by which he means the past 
tense used adjectively. He thinks that, just as we use one noun sub- 
stantive to qualify another noun subtantive [e.g. ' a gold watch'], so we 
are accustomed to use the Past Tense itself, without any change of termi- 
nation, instead of the Perfect Participle ; and the Past Tense so used 
answers the purpose equally with the Participle, and conveys the same 
meaning. 

Dr. Lowth, he adds, who was much better acquainted with Greek 
and Latin than with English, finds great fault with this our English 
custom, calls it a very gross corruption, and complains that it is too 
much authorised by the example of some of our best writers. He then 
gives instances of this inexcusable barbarism from Shakespeare, Milton, 
Dryden, Pope, and Bolingbroke. And if he had been pleased to go 
further back than Shakespeare, he might (in the opinion of Home Tooke) 
have given instances of the same from ever?/ writer in the English 
tongue. It is, says Home Tooke, the idiom of the language ; and Dr. 
Lowth is undoubtedly in error when he says, ' This abuse has been 
long growing upon us, and is continually making further encroach- 
ments.' Home Tooke thinks, on the contraiy, that the custom has 
greatly decreased ; and as the Greek and Latin languages have become 
more familiar to Englishmen, our language has proceeded more and 
more to bend to the rules and customs of those languages. 

However, he concludes, we shall be much to blame if we miss the ad- 
vantage afforded by these very defects ; for they may assist us to discover 
the nature of human speech, by a comparison of our own language with 
more cultivated languages. And this is eminently the case in the 
present instances of the Past Participle and the Noun Adjective. Eor, 
since we can and do use our Noun itself unaltered, and our Past Tense 
unaltered, for the same purpose and the same meaning, as the Greeks 
and Latins use their Adjective and their Participle ; it is manifest that 
their Adjective and Participle are merely their Noun and Past Tense 
adjectived. — Home Tooke, Diversions of Furley, vol. ii. pp. 470-474. 

343. It is not true that writers older than Shakespeare use 
tlie past tense for the perfect participle. No doubt, as tlie 



182 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

two forms coincide in verbs of the first conjugation, there was 
a strong tendency to apply the same principle to verbs of the 
second conjugation. This tendency prevailed, fi-om the time 
of Shakespeare to the middle of the last century, especially in 
poetry, where such forms as took and shook afforded greater 
facilities of rhyme than taken and shaken. During the last 
seventy years, the study of our older literature has made us 
better acquainted with the original idiom of the language ; 
hence, as Home Tooke admits, * the custom has greatly 
decreased,' though not for the reasons which he assigns. It 
was not the study of the Greek and Latin languages, but that 
of Old English, which led us to see the truth. 

The case is correctly stated by Dr. Latham. This coinci- 
dence of the Past Tense and the Perfect Participle appears to 
have arisen from the rejection of the participial termination 
-en. The vowel of the participle is often the same as the 
vowel of the past tense, as spoke ^ spoken ; though not always, 
as tookj taken. When the vowel is the same, and when the 
termination -en or -n is rejected, the Past Tense and the 
Perfect Participle exhibit the same form as * I found ^^ * I 
h?i>YQ foundj ' I was found.' In such a case, it seems as if the 
past tense was used for the participle. But it is only in a few 
words, and in the most modern forms of our language, that 
this is really done. — See Latham, English Grammar^ §§ ^j 14. 



VOICE. 

344. As there are, in English nouns, no differences of ter- 
mination to distinguish the objective from the nominative, 
younger pupils are sometimes perplexed in comparing an 
active form of verb with the corresponding passive form. 
Take, for example, the following sentences : — 

1. William loves Mary. 

2. Mary is loved by William. 

Here the same fact is stated in both sentences ; but the 
grammatical construction is very different. In the first case, 
' William ' is the subject-nominative, and * Mary ' is the ob- 
jective ; while, in the second, * Mary' is the subject-nomina- 
tive, and ' William ' is in the objective case, governed by the 
preposition * by.' 

Those who are familiar with inflected languages, such aa 
Greek and Latin, where the noims alter their terminations to 



VERBS. 183 

denote difference of case, may wonder that any perplexity 
sliould arise. But the mere English scholar needs assistance 
to miderstand this point. Cobbett states that he was very 
much puzzled on account of these cases. He says ( Grammar^ 
§ 233), ^ I saw, that when ^^ Peter was smitten,''^ Peter was in 
the nominative case] but that, when any person or thing " had 
smitten Peter," Peter was in the objective ease. This puzzled 
me much. Reflection on the reason for this apparent incon- 
sistency soon taught me, however, that, in the first of these 
cases, Peter is merely named, or nominated, as the receiver of 
an action ; and that, in the latter instance, Peter is mentioned 
as the object of the action of some other person or thing, ex- 
pressed or understood. I perceived that, in the first instance, 
'^ Peter is smitten,^' I had a complete sense. I was informed 
as to the person who had received an action, and also as to 
what sort of action he had received. And I perceived that, 
in the second instance, ^' John has smitten Peter, ^^ there was 
an actor who took possession of the use of the verb, and made 
Peter the object of it, and that this actor, John, now took to 
the nominative, and put Peter in the objective case. 

^ This puzzle was, however, hardly got over, when another 
presented itself; for I conceived the notion that Peter was in 
the nominative only because no actor ivas mentioned at all in 
the sentence ; but I soon discovered this to be an error, for I 
found that " Peter is smitten by John " still left Peter in the 
nominative ; and that, if I used the pronoun, I must say " he 
is smitten by John,' and not ''' him is smitten by John." 

* At last the little insignificant word by attracted my atten- 
tion. This word, in this place, is a 2^reposition. Ah ! that is 
it ! prepositions govern nouns and pronouns ; that is to say, 
make them to be in the objective case ! So that John, who had 
plagued me so much, I found to be in the objective case ; and 
I found that, if I put him out, and put the pronoun in his 
place, I must say, '' Peter is smitten by him^ ' 

345. Now let us analyse the examples taken above : 

1. William loves Mary. 

William .... Subject-nominative 

loves Predicate-verb 

Mary Objective, 

2. Mary is loved by William. 

According to the method which we have hitherto followed, 
we analyse 



184 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Mary .... Subject-nominative 

is Predicate-verb 

loved .... Predicate-nominative 
by William . . Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the 
predicate nominative^ ' loved.' 

But, in the Latin language * is loved ' would be expressed 
by a single word amatur ; hence, in the analysis of Latin sen- 
tences, it is proper to call amatur a * predicate-verb.' I am 
inclined to think that we may do well to introduce the same 
form of analysis in English sentences : thus, 

Mary Subject-nominative 

is loved .... Predicate-verb J compounded of 
the auxiliary is^ and the par- 
ticiple loved^ used as a predi- 
cate-nominative, 
by William . . . Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the 
predicate-verb J ' is loved.' 

346. But here a caution must be observed. We are not 
to suppose that is, or any other part of the verb be, is a * sign 
of the passive voice.' In the sentence, ' He is breaking the 
windows,' * is breaking ' is transitive ; in the sentences ^ He 
is coming,' * He is come,' is coming and is come are intran- 
sitive. 

Every passive voice in English forms its tenses by means 
of the verb be ; though every form in which the verb be is 
found is not passive. ' I am writing ' is an active form ; and 
* he is come ' is the present-perfect tense of an intransitive 
verb. Whether, therefore, a verb is in the passive voice, or 
whether it exhibits the form of a verb transitive or intransi- 
tive, is decided not by the presence of the auxiliary, but by 
the nature of the participle. — See Angus, Handbook, § 276. 



MOOD. 

347. The grammatical term ' Mood ' is derived from the 
French mode, signifying * manner,'- and this, in turn, comes 
from the Latin modus. 

Our ordinary English word * mood ' has another origin, 
being derived from the Anglo-Saxon mod, which denotes (1) 
'mind,' (2) * mood,' ^disposition,' * passion.' (Compare the 
German muth, * courage,' and ge-micth, * mood,' * disposition.') 

The two notions of ' manner ' and * mind ' seem to run 



VERBS. 185 

together in the definitions proposed by some of our gram- 
marians. For instance, Dr. Lowth says : ' A Mode is a par- 
ticular form of the Verb, denoting the manner in which a 
thing is, does, or suiFers ; or expressing an intention of mind 
concerning such being, doing, or suffering.' — Lowth, English 
Grammar, p. 50, note. And Sir John Stoddart says : ^ The 
Mood of a verb is that manner in which its assertive power is 
exhibited, and which depends on the state of mind in which 
the speaker may be placed with relation to the assertion.' — 
Universal Grammar, p. 50. 

We might suspect that English writers were in some way 
influenced by the twofold derivation of the word * mood ; ' 
but the same remark could not apply to Priscian, who still 
says : * Modi sunt diversae inclinationes animi, quas varia 
consequitur declinatio verb!.' [^ Modi sunt diversge inclina- 
tiones animi varies ejus affectus demonstrantes.' — Prise, viii. 
ed. Putsch, p. 819.] 

No doubt, the mode of the verb, or the manner of expres- 
sion, will generally correspond with the mood, that is, the 
mind or disposition of the speaker ; but it is important to dis- 
tinguish the original meaning of the terms. Dr. Lowth has 
retained the grammatical term Mode, and in this he is fol- 
lowed by other writers ; but as the term Mood is more common 
in English grammars, it is hardly worth while to make any 
change. 

Grammarians differ widely as to the number and the names 
of the Moods. Some make only three ; others admit four, 
five, six, or even more. The names too are various ; and 
some terms have been accepted in the grammar of one lan- 
guage which find no place in the grammar of other languages. 
For example, in Greek grammar we hear of an ^ optative ' 
mood. The ' potential ' mood has struggled for a position in 
some grammars, but with doubtful success ; while the * pre- 
cative ' and ^ interrogative ' moods have met with still less 
favour. 

If by * mood * is meant an alteration of form, in any verb, 
to express variety of assertion, then we have traces of only 
four moods in English : the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the 
Imperative, and the Infinitive. But if we admit variations 
produced by the help of auxiliary verbs, it is difficult to set 
any limit to the number of moods. 



% 



186 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

The Four Moods, 

3.48. 1. The Indicative mood is used to make a simple 
assertion, or declaration : as, ' Light shines,' * They 
come,' ' Bread is dear.' 

2. The Subjmictive mood is used to make a modified asser- 

tion : as,/ Kit be,' * Though he slay me.' 

3. The Imperative mood is used to utter commands, entrea- 

ties, or exhortations : as, * Leave me,' * Spare us,' * Go 
forward.' 

4. The Infinitive mood is really a Verbal Substantive. It 
has the force of a substantive, yet it retains some of the 
powers of a verb. It loses, however, all distinction of 
person or number. 

TENSE. 

349. The word tense is derived from the French temps or 
terns, which itself comes from the Latin tempus, * time.' 

But we must carefully distinguish between tense and time. 

Some speculators have maintained that there is no such 
thing as * time present ; ' for each moment is constantly fleet- 
ing into ^ time past,' and the moment just about to arrive is 
* time future.' 

But tense is the grammatical notion of time ; and we are at 
liberty to consider time under whatever aspects we please ; we 
may regard one day as a thousand years, or a thousand years 
as one day. 

The general division of time is into ^ past,' ^ present,' and 
^ fiiture.' Hence, if the time of an event were the only thing 
to be considered in grammar, we might make three tenses, and 
three only. 

But beside the time of an action, there are three aspects 
under which an action or event may be viewed. 

1. An action may be incomplete, or, as it is usually called, 

Imperfect. 

2. An action may be complete, or Perfect. 

3. An action may be regarded as occurring from time to 

time, or at any time, without any consideration 
whether it be complete or incomplete : in this case, 
the term used is Indefinite, or, in Greek grammar, 
Aorist. The student of Greek grammar should be- 
ware of confounding aorist with past. There might 



VERBS. 



187 



be a present-aorist ; and although such a tense has 
no distinct form in Greek, the aorist, in Homer ^ has 
often the force of an indefinite-present. 

We have then : 





Present 


Past 


Future 


Indefinite 
Lnjperfect 
Perfect 


I write 

I am writing 

I have written 


I wrote 

I was writing 

I had written 


I shall write. 

I shall be writing. 

I shall have written. 



or, in other words : 

Present- Indefinite 
Present-Imperfect 
Present- Perfect . 

Past- Indefinite , 
Past- Imperfect . 
Past-Perfect . . 

Future- Indefinite . 
Future- Imperfect 
Future- Perfect . 



I write. 

I am writing. 

I have written. 

I wrote. 

I was writing. 

I had written. 

I shall write. 

I shall be writing. 

I shall have written. 



350. Younger pupils may be profitably exercised and cross- 
examined upon a table of this kind, in order to impress upon 
their minds a correct notion of the tenses. It may be well to 
explain that the term ' imperfect ' denotes something * con- 
tinuous,' that is, ^ going on.' For example, the ' present im- 
perfect,' / am writing J denotes a continuous action, going on 
at the present time. So the * past-imperfect,' / was writing^ 
denotes a continuous action, going on at some past time. On 
the other hand, the term ^ perfect ' means ^ complete,' or 
' finished : ' thus, / shall have written means ^ I shall have 
finished the act of writing.' 

From this table it appears that perfect and past are not the 
same. A tense is past, present, or future, according to the 
time whereof we speak ; not according to the completeness or 
incompleteness of the action. 

Many persons are liable to confound the terms past and 
perfect^ because they derived their first notions of grammar 
from the Latin language, where the same form has to do 
double duty, for the past-indefinite and the present-perfect. 
For example, scripsi may mean ' I wrote,' or ' I have written.' 
It is sometimes difficult to make pupils see that * I have writ- 



188 



KULES AND CAUTIONS. 



ten ' implies time present ; for they argue that the action is 
finished. So it is ; but it is finished in time present^ that is, 
in the time whereof the speaker is now speaking. 

If we arrange the Latin tenses in a manner corresponding 
to the English tenses given above, we at once perceive the 
deficiency of the Latin language. 





Present 


Fast 


Future 


Indefinite 
Imperfect 
Ferfect 


scribo 

(scribo) 

(scripsi) 


scripsi 

scribebam 

scripseram 


scribam. 

(scribam). 

scripsero. 



Here we remark that scribo does duty for * I write ' and 
^ I am writing,' as scribam for * I shall write ' and * I shall be 
writing.' As, however, these are tenses of the same order, 
present or future respectively, no serious error is likely to 
arise. But the case of scripsi is very different. That word 
does duty for tenses of different orders ; for the past indefinite 
* I wrote,' and for the present perfect ^ I have written.' 

It is very important to understand that ^ I have written ' is 
a present tense ; for, although it denotes a ^ perfect ' or ' com- 
pleted ' action, yet the completion takes place in present time. 
Thus, for the sake of illustration, we may say : 

Past. Yesterday at twelve o'clock, I had written my 
exercise. 

Present. To-day, at twelve o'clock, I have written my 
exercise, and the ink is not yet dry. 

Future. To-morrow, at twelve o'clock, I shall have written 
my exercise. 

It must be clear, that * I have written ' points to time pre- 
sent. And the same tense, the present-perfect, is employed in 
reference to an action, the effects of which continue up to the 
present time. Thus we may say, * England has founded a 
mighty Empire in the East,' because that Empire still con- 
tinues. But we cannot say, * Cromwell has founded a 
dynasty,' because the dynasty exists no longer. — See Mason, 
English Grammar, § 207. 

351. Hence, with the present-perfect we should never join 
adverbs, or other words, which involve a reference to time past. 
Thus the following passages are incorrect : — 

I have formerly talked with you about a military dic- 
tionary. — Johnson. 



VEEBS. 189 

Many years after this article was written, has appeared 
the history of English Dramatic Poetry by Mr. Collier. 
— D'Israeli. 

On the other hand we should not use the past tense inde- 
finite with an adverb, or other word, which involves time 
present. In Cork people constantly say, * I did not see him 
since,^ ^ I did not find it yet,'' for ' I have not seen him since,' 
* I have not found it yet.' 

352. The indefinite tenses refer strictly to a point of time, 
and to single acts without regard to duration : they are, how- 
ever, used to express repeated acts and habits. 

We may observe the following peculiarities : 

1. The present indefinite is used to express general 
truths : as ' Love is stronger than death,' ^ One fool 
makes many.' 

2. Both the present and the past indefinite are used to 
express habit ; as, ' He writes a good hand,' ' He went 
to the Hall every day.' 

In the Irish language, there are forms called Consnetudinal tenses : 
as, bidhrm (pronounced bee-im), ' I am usually ;' bhidhinn (pronounced 
vee-i?m), ' I used to be.' — See Connellan, Irish Grammar, pp. 58, 60. 

In the Anglo-Irish, as spoken at Cork, the Consuetudinal present is 
rendered by the auxiliaries do and be : as, '1 do be thinking.' Those 
who wish to make it fine, say ' Fd a be thinking.' At first I thought 
this was a contraction for ' I would be thinking ;' but I afterwards 
discovered that this explanation was not correct. 

3. In animated narrative, and in poetry, the present is 
used to describe past events. This is commonly called 
the Historic Present, So : 

He through the armed files 
Darts his experienced eye, and soon traverse 
The whole battalion views, their order due, 
Their visages and stature as of gods, 
Their number last he sums. 

Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 567. 

4. The present indefinite is often used for a future, both 
for future -indefinite and future- perfect : as. 

Indefinite, Duncan comes here to-night. 

Perfect, When he arrives, he will bring the news. 

i. e. * When he shall have arrived.' 

353. This is a remnant of the old language. In Anglo- 
Saxon there was no distinct form for the fiitiure ; or rather, 



190 RULES ANT) CAUTIONS. 

one form was made to do double duty for the future as well as 

for the present. 

Obs. — In Welsh, on the other hand, there is no distinct form 
for the present tense, and the future sometimes does 
duty for the present. More commonly, in Welsh, the 
present is represented by the verb bod^ * be,' joined to a 
form of the principal verb, with the prefixed particle 
yn. In Hebrew tl^re is no distinctive present tense. 

354. From t*his we may understand the reason why the 
future tense in English offers so much difficulty. First of all, 
we must remember, that in modern English there is no distinct 
infiection to represent the future ; and that, especially in com- 
mon conversation, we employ a present tense with a future 
signification : as ^ I go to London to-morrow,' * He comes down 
next week.' The same usage is very common in accessory 
clauses : as, ^ When he comes ^ he will tell us.' Here other 
languages would require a form denoting ^ when he shall come^ 
or, more strictly, ^ when he shall have come^ This point should 
be carefully remembered, when we are translating from Eng- 
lish into other languages. 

When we wish to employ a distinctive future, we make 
use of the auxiliaries * shall' and ^ will' followed by the infi- 
nitive mood, but without the prefix to. For example, in the 
phrases ^ I will writej * You shall see^ the verbs write and see 
are grammatically in the infinitive mood, dependent upon the 
auxiliary verbs ' will' and ^ shall.' 

In Anglo-Saxon these were independent verbs, with signi- 
fications of their own : willan^ ^ to will, to wish ; ' sceolan, ^ to 
owe.' In modem English will retains its independent powers, 
as ' Man willSj' ' What he wills must be done.' Hence, 
because these verbs are not mere signs of futurity, but still 
retain traces of their original signification, they cannot be 
used indifferently ; but the speaker appropriates as much as 
he can of the will^ and puts upon other people as much as 
Y possible of the shall. It is ^ I will ' and * You shall.' 
4 I have often been amused to hear two English children dis- 
puting, and to observe how accurately they discriminate the 
use of the auxiliaries. As, * I will not^ * But you shall \ ' ^ But 
I will not^^ ' But, I say, you shall ]^ * But, I tell you, I will 
not ' . . . ; and so they have gone on, until little could be 
heard, but will on the one side, and shall on the other. 

355. On this subject, the older grammars were not only 
meagre, but likely to mislead the student ; for the future was 
given thus : 



VERBS. 191 



Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Now the future is not expressed by * shall or will ; ' but 
sometimes by * shall,' and at other times by * will.' When the 
one form is to be used, and when the other, is a question 
which the grammarian ought to answer. 

356. We have two fature tenses in English ; one express- 
ing simple futurity; the other expressing determination of 
some kind, as command, threat, or promise. I call these, I. 
the Simple Future; II. the Determinate (or Imperative) Future. 

I. Simple Future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall write, 1. We shall write, 

2. Thou wilt write, 2. You will write, 

3. He will write. 3. They will write. 

II. Determinate Future. 
Singular. • Plural. 

1. I will write, 1. We will write, 

2. Thou shalt write, 2. You shall write, 

3. He shall write. 3. They shall write. 

These forms are used in indicative sentences. In interro- 
gative sentences the following forms are employed : 

357. — I. Simple Future {Interrogative^. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. A^Aa^Z I write ? 1. /S'Aa/Z we write ? 

2. Shalt thou write ? 2. Shall you write ? 

3. Will he write ? 3. Will they write? 

II. Determinate Future {Interrogative). 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall 1 write? 1. Shall we writel 

2. Wilt thou write ? 2. Will you write ? 

3. Shall he write ? 3. Shall they write ? 

With interrogatives * shall ' asks permission or advice from 



192 BULES AND CAUTIONS. 

the person addressed. It is, therefore, used with the first and 
third persons of the Determinate Future Interrogative. In 
the second person, of the same tense, the inquirer asks the 
consent of the person addressed, and therefore * will ' is used, 
especially in invitations. 

Although shall is used in the first and second persons of 
the Simple Future Interrogative, there is a tendency to vary 
the phrase : as, ^ Are you going to write ? ' * Am I likely to 
hear from him ? ' ' Are they about to sail ? ' 

358. It is a common mistake in Ireland to ask ' Will I go ? ' 
and ^ Will we go ? ' But the speaker ought to know his own 
mind, and should never interrogate another person about his 
own will, * Will I ? ' can never be used, except in the repe- 
tition of a question, in a tone of surprise : as, ^ Will you go ? ' 
' Will I go ? Of course I will.' 

On the other hand, the Irish often say ' I shall,' in answer 
to a question asking for assent : as, * Will you write to me ? ' 
* I shall.^ This form occurs in older English, and not un- 
commonly in Shakespeare : 

K. Henri/, Brothers both, 

Commend me to the princes in our camp ; 
Do my good morrow to them ; and, anon, 
Desire them all to my pavilion. 

Gloster, We shall, my liege. — Henry V. iv. 1. 

K, Henry. Good old Knight, 

Collect them all together at my tent ; 

I'll be before thee. 
Erpingham, I shall do't, my lord. — Ibid. 

359. But this use of ^ shall ' is contrary to present custom. 
\\Taen we expect an assurance of assent, we look for an ex- 
pression of the loill — * I will.' 

I have observed, in Ireland, that there is an aversion to the 
use of absolute, imperative language. People seem to avoid 
the words ought, must, and the ^ absolute shall ' of which 
Shakespeare speaks : 

Licinius, It is a mind 

That shall remain a poison where it is, 

Nor poison any further. 
Coriolanus, Shall remain ! 

Hear ye this Triton of the minnows ? Mark you 

His absolute * shall? ' — Coriolanus, iii. 1. 



TEEBS. 193 

People in Cork commonly say * A man has a right to pay 
bis debts,' and * The money has a right to be paid,' when 
they mean that, ' A man ought to pay his debts,' and that 
* The money must or should be paid.' Similarly nurses some- 
times say to a child, ^ Oh ! you could not have that,' for ' you 
must not have that.' 

In like manner, in Scotland, people often say, ^ You require 
to go out,' where there is no requirement at all, in the sense 
of ^ wanting ' or ^ wishing ; ' but where the speaker means ^ It 
is your duty to go out,' or ^ You must go out.' 

360. The distinction between ^ shall ' and ^ will ' is one of 
the great difficulties of the English language, more vexatious 
to an Irishman or Scotchman than to a foreigner. For the 
Irishman or Scotchman has to unlearn his own habit of speak- 
ing, in addition to acquiring the English idiom. Dr. Lowth, 
(E?iglish Grammar, p. 65,) states the rule thus : ^ Will in the 
first person singular and plural promises or threatens ; in the 
second and third persons, only foretels; shall, on the con- 
trary, in the first person, simply foretels ; in the second and 
third persons, promises, commands, or threatens.' Then he 
adds in a note : ' This distinction was not observed formerly 
as to the word shall, which was used in the second and third 
persons to express simply the event. So likewise should was 
used, where now we make use of would. See the Vulgar 
Translation of the Bible.' 

He further remarks that this rule must be understood of 
Explicative, by which, no doubt, he means Indicative sen- 
tences ; ^ for,' he says, ^ when the sentence is interrogative, 
just the reverse, for the most part, takes place : thus, " I shall 
go ; you ivill go," express event only ; but " ivill you go ? " 
imports intention ; and " shall I go ? " refers to the will of 
another. But again, " he shall go," and " shall he go ? " both 
imply will, expressing or referring to a command. Would 
primarily denotes inclination of will, and should, obligation ; 
but they both vary their import, and are often used to express 
a simple event.' 

Brightland sums up the rule in the following verses : 
In the first person simply shall foretells ; 
In will a threat, or else a promise dwells. 
Shall, in the second and the third, does threat ; 
Will, simply, then, foretells the future feat. 
This, however, must be understood of Indicative sentences 
only. 

E 



194 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

361. Sir Edmund W. Head, who has discussed the question 
at length in a work entitled ' " Shall " and " Will/' ' lays down 
the following rules, pp. 119, 120 : 

^ Will. 

TVill^ in the first person, expresses (a) a resolution, or 
(&) a promise : 

(a) " I will not go " = " It is mj resolution 

not to go." 
(5) "I ivill give it you " = " I promise to give 
it you." 
Will, in the second person, foretells : 

" If you come at twelve o'clock you will find me 
at home." 
Will, in the second person, in questions, anticipates (a) 
a wish, or (h) an intention : 

" Will you go to-morrow ? " = " Is it your wish 
or intention to go to-morrow ? " 
Will, in the third person, foretells, generally implying 
an intention at the same time, when the nominative 
is a rational creature : 

" He will come to-morrow," signifies (a) what 
is to take place, and {b) that it is the inten- 
tion of the person mentioned to come. 
" I think it will snow to-day," intimates what 
is, probably, to take place. 
Will must never be used in questions with nominative 
cases of the first person : 

" Will we come to-morrow " = " Is it our in- 
tention or desire to come to-morrow ? " which 
is an absurd question. 

362. * Would. 

Would is subject to the same rules as will, 
Would^ followed by that, is frequently used (the nomi- 
native being expressed or understood) to express a 
wish : 

*' Would that he had died before this disgrace 
befell him " = " I wish that he had died be- 
fore this disgrace befell him." 
Would have, followed by an infinitive, signifies a desire 
to do or make : 

" I would have you think of these things " = 
" I wish to make you think of these things." 



VERBS. 195 

Would is often "used to express a custom : 

*^ He would often talk about these things " = 
" It was his custom to talk of these things." 

363. ^ Shall. 

Shall^ in the first person, foretells, simply expressing 
what is to take place : 

" I shall go to-morrow." Ohs. No intention or 
desire is expressed by shall. 
Shall, in the first person, in questions, asks permis- 
sion : 

" Shall I read ? " = " Do you wish me, or will 
you permit me, to read ? " [Sometimes shall 
in the first person marks a simple interroga- 
tive, as " shall I see him ? "] 
Shall, in the second and third persons, expresses (a) a 
promise, (h) a command, or (c) a threat. 

(a) " You shall have these books to-morrow " 
= " I promise to let you have these books 
to-morrow." 

(b) " Thou shalt not steal " = "I command 
thee not to steal." 

(a) (c) " He shall be punished for this " = " I 
threaten or promise to punish him for this 
offence." 

364. ^ Should. 

Should is subject to the same rules as shall. 
Should frequently expresses dut?/ : 

^^ You should not do so " = " It is your duty 
not to do so." 
Should often signifies a plan : 

" I should not do so " = " It would not be my 
plan to do so." 
Should often expresses a supposition : 

" Should they not agree to the proposals, what 
must I do ? " := " Suppose that it happen that 
they will not agree to the proposals,' &c." ' 

365. These practical rules are good, as far as they go. But 
then, they have to be modified according to the signification 
of other words in a sentence. For instance, if I am leaving 
town, to take a journey, a friend says, *• I hope you will write 
to me.' I reply, ^ Yes, I will,'' or ^ I will do so Avith pleasure.' 
But if any word denoting willingness is introduced before the 

k2 



196 RIJLES AND CAUTIONS. 

word ivrite^ the construction is altered. We do not saj^ * I 
will be happy to do so,' ^ I will be very glad to write ; ' but 
' I shall be happy to do so,' ' I shall be very glad to write.' 
And why is this ? Because happiness implies willingness ; 
and to say ' I will be happy ' is almost like saying ' I will be 
willing.' 

Hence, it is not enough to study general rules, apart from 
the construction of sentences, and the mutual dependence of 
words in sentences. The grammatical rules must be supple- 
mented by familiarity with the best authors, and by conversa- 
tion in good society. 

We must, however, confess that the same attention has not 
been paid to English syntax that has been given to the Greek. 
We have nothing in English grammar comparable to the 
Greek grammars of Matthise, Buttmann, or Kuhner (Jelf). 
Still, certain points have been discussed. The reader may 
consult ' shall and will ' in Latham's English Language^ pp. 
618-627, introducing the views of Archdeacon Hare and 
Professor De Morgan. See also a correspondence between 
H. E. G. and Professor De Morgan, in the Athenceuniy May 6, 
1865. 

NUMBER. 

366. In modern English there is generally no distinct ter- 
mination to mark the plural in verbs. 

In Anglo-Saxon, the termination of the plural was -ath in 
the Present Indicative, and on in the Past Indicative, and in 
the Subjunctive, both Present and Past. 

In Old English, and in some provincial dialects to the pre- 
sent day, the termination in -en is found ; so Chaucer, 
And smale foules maJcen melodie 
That slepen all night with open eye. 

Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 9. 

The chambres and the stables weren wide, 
And wel we weren esed atte beste. 

Ibid, 28. 
This termination was in common use down to the sixteenth 
century, when all indication of a plural form disappeared. 

Ben Jonson says, that ^ in former times, till about the reign 
of King Henry the Eighth, the persons plural were wont to be 
formed by adding en : thus, 

loven, say en, complainen. 



VERBS. 197 

But now (whatsoever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of 
use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I dare not pre- 
sume to set this afoot again : albeit (to tell you my opinion) I 
am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered will be 
found a great blemish to our tongue.' — Ben Jonson, English 
Grammar^ i. 16. 

PEESON. 

367. The terminations which mark differences of Person 
are foimd in the singular number of the Present and Past 
tenses Indicative. 

1. First Person Singular. — The only verb which retains a 
distinctive termination for the first person singular is am {a-m), 
where the letter m represents the -077i of the Anglo-Saxon e-om. 

2. Second Person Singular. — The termination of the second 
person singular is -est, -st, or -t : as, 

Present : call-est, csm-st, av-t. 
Past : spake-est, called-s^. 

8. Third Person Singular. — The termination of the third 
person is -eth or -th, which in modern English assumes the 
form -es or -s. These terminations appear in the Present In- 
dicative only : 

Present : call-e^A, do-th. 

call-5, do-es, search-es. 

INFINITIVES AND PAKTICIPLES. 

Infinitives and Participles are respectively like nouns (sub- 
stantive) and adjectives. Infinitives resemble nouns, in the 
fact that they describe acts and states merely as things or 
notions ; and that the infinitive can be made either the sub- 
ject or the object of a verb. Participles resemble adjectives 
in attributing a quahty, without foimallT/ asserting it] and in 
agreeing with their nouns. 

But they differ respectively in the following particulars : — 
The Infinitive admits no plural form, and rarely a possessive 
genitive (i. e., the form ending in -5) ; and it can govern an 
objective case. The Participle active, when formed fi:om a 
transitive verb, can govern an accusative ; and then it gene- 
rally stands after its noun. See Angus, Handbook, § 286. 

In connection with the Infinitive, we must consider the forms 
called Gerunds. 



198 EXILES AND CAUTIONS. 



INFINITIVE AND OEEUNDS. 



368. In §§ 29 — 36 we discussed the history of the English 
infinitive, and we saw that the prefix to, its ordinary sign in 
modern English, belonged originally to the gerundial form of 
the Anglo-Saxon infinitive. Even in modern English, this 
prefix is not always necessary ; it is generally omitted after 
some of the auxiliaries, as may, can, and after some other 
verbs, as, hid, make. 

But in other cases, where to signifies * in order to,' it is a 
true preposition and marks a gerund. As * He came to see 
me,' that is, ' for seeing me,' * for the purpose of seeing me ; ' 
or, as it was expressed at one period, * for to see me.' We 
call this the Gerund with to. 

The form in -ing as ' loving,' ^ writing,' which must not be 
confounded with the present participle, is considered by Dr. 
Adams, whose opinions we followed, a remnant of the old infi- 
nitive. But as it has been usual to call this form a Gerund, 
some may wish to retain that term. If so they should dis- 
tinguish between the Gerund in -ing, and the Gerund with to, 

369. There is considerable difficulty in determining the forms in-ing. 
The account given by Dr. Adams is the most consistent that I have seen. 
The following view is taken by Professor Max Miiller, Lectures on the 
Science of Language, Second Series, pp. 15-18: "We have not very 
far to go in order to hear such phrases as ' he is a-going, I am a-coming, 
&c.' instead of the more usual ' he is going, I am coming.' Now, the 
fact is that the vulgar or dialectic expression ' he is a-going' is far 
more correct than ' he is going.' (Archdeacon Hare, Words corrupted by 
False Analogy or False Derivation, p. Qb.y^ 

" Ing, in our modern grammars, is called the termination of the parti- 
ciple present, but it does not exist as such in Anglo-Saxon. In Anglo- 
Saxon the termination of that participle is ande or inde. This was 
preserved as late as Gower's and Chaucer's time, though in most cases 
it had then already been supplanted by the termination -ing. For 
example, 

Pointis and sieves be wel sittande 
Full right and straight upon the hande. 

Bomaunt of the Ease, 2264. 

** Now, the termination -ing is clearly used in two different senses, even 
in modern English. If we say a ' loving child,' loving is a verbal adjec- 
tive. If we say * loving our neighbour is our highest duty,' loving is a 
verbal substantive. Again, there are many substantives in -ing, such as 
building, wedding, meeting, where the verbal character of the substan- 
tive is almost, if not entirely, lost." 

*'Now, if we look to Anglo-Saxon, we find the termination -ing used, 
(1) To form patronymics; for instance, Godvulfing, the son of God- 
vulf. In the Anglo-Saxon translation of the Bible, the son of Elisha 
is called Elising. 



YERBS. 199 

(2). " Ing is used to form more general attributive words, such as 
(B\>€ling (atheling), * a man of rank ;' lyteling, ' an infant ;' nixing, * a bad 
man.' This -uig being frequently preceded by another suffix, the I, we 
arrive at the very common derivative -h7ig, in such words as darling^ 
hireling, yearling , foundling , nestling, worldling, changeling, 

*' It has been supposed that the modern English participle was formed 
by the same derivative ; but in Anglo-Saxon, this suffix -ing is chiefly 
attached to nouns and adjectives, not to verbs. There was, however, 
another derivative in Anglo-Saxon, which was attached to verbs in order 
to form verbal substantives. This was -ung, the G-erman -ung. For 
instance, clcmsung^ ' cleansing ;' bedcnung, ' beaconing,' &c. In early 
Anglo-Saxon, these abstract nouns in -ung are far more numerous than 
those in -i72g. Ing, however, began soon to encroach on 'U7ig, and at 
present no trace is left in English of substantives derived from verbs by 
means of -ung. 

" Although, as I said, it might seem more plausible to look on the 
modern participle in English as originally an adjective in -i7ig, such 
popular phrases as a-going, a-thinking point rather to the verbal sub- 
stantive in 'ing as the source from which the modern English participle 
was derived. ' I am going' is really a corruption of ' I am a-going,' i.e. 
* I am on going,' and the participle present would thus, by a very simple 
process^ be traced back to a Locative case of a verbal noun." 



PAETICIPLES. 

370. Participle are verbal adjectives^ differing from ordi- 
nary adjectives in this, that they retain some of the powers of 
a verb ; for instance, the active participle of a verb transitive 
can govern an objective case : as, ^ He stood there throwing 
stones,^ 

We have, in English, two participles : — 

(1) The Imperfect or incomplete participle in -ing. 
-(2) The Perfect or complete participle ending in -ed, -d^ 
-^, -e?i, or -n. 

Sometimes the Imperfect participle is called the present 
participle, and the Perfect is called the past participle. 

The participle in -ing has an active force. And as it 
happens that, in the case of Transitive verbs, the Perfect par- 
ticiple is always passive^ a confusion has arisen in the minds 
of some persons, who have not been able to decide whether 
the form in -ed is originally a past participle, or a passive 
participle, or whether there be any connection between past 
and passive. 

The participle in -ed is Perfect, that is to say, it denotes an 
action completed or finished , but it is not necessarily passive : 
for example, in *I have walked^ there is nothing passive. But 



200 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

in * I have written,'' though the whole phrase stands for the 
perfect tense active^ yet * written ' is a passive participle. Thie 
difficulty is thus explained : that * I have written a letter ' is 
originally * I have a letter written,' where * written ' is the 
passive participle used as an adjective, and agreeing with 
^ letter.' In Latin, we find such forms as haheo scriptam 
epistolam, which means ' I have (or hold) a letter written,' 
rather than * I have written a letter ; ' but the construction is 
near enough to throw light upon our form, and has suggested 
the explanation. 

371. The participle in ~ing is used with the active form of 
verbs transitive^ or with intransitive verbs : as ^ He is making 
progress,' * He is travelling.^ Although the auxiliary be is 
commonly used with passive forms, we must be careful not to 
mistake it for a sign of the passive : * He is making ' is active 
and transitive. 

We should carefully watch the use of the participles with 
the verb be, in the case of intransitive verbs ; for instance, — 

He is coming .... Present-imjDerfect tense. 
He was coming . . . Past-imperfect tense. 
He is come Present-perfect tense. 

In modern English, we more commonly say * He has come ; ' 
but * he is come ' is more common in older English, and is 
warranted by the German ' er ist gekommen.' 

372. There is, however, one construction in which, to all 
appearance, we find an active participle in -ing^ where we 
should expect a passive ; as, 

The house is building. 

The temple was forty years building. 

In older stages of the language, these sentences were ex- 
pressed ^ The house is a-building,' ' The temple was forty 
years a-building ; ' and the particle a is said to be a contrac- 
tion of the Anglo-Saxon preposition an, ^on,' * in.' 

If so, then the word ' building ' is here not a participle but 
a Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing. For the participle standing 
alone could not be governed by a preposition ; such govern- 
ment demands an infinitive or a gerund. 

373. But in a few instances, wherein this explanation does 
not seem applicable, we still find the form in -ing, where we 
should expect a passive participle : as, 



VERBS. 201 

beholding for beholden, 
owing for owed (i,e. * owe '). 
wanting for wanted. 
I would not be beholding to fortune for any part of. the 

victory. — Sidney. 
I'll teach you what is owing to your Queen. — Dry den. 
We have the means in our hands, and nothing but the 
application of them is wanting. — Addison. 
The phrase a-w anting is heard in some dialects. 

374. On the other hand, we sometimes find the Perfect 
participle of a transitive verb used, where we expect an active 
and not a passive sense : as, 

mistaken for mistaking. 
You are too much mistaken in this king. — Hen, V. ii. 4. 
Compare the question addressed by Othello to Cassio : 
How comes it, Michael, you are thus forgot ? 
i. e. ' that you have so far forgotten yourself.' 

Othello, ii. 3. 

AUXILIAEIES. 

375. As the inflections of English verbs are few, we need 
some assistance to express the various relations of Voice, 
Mood, and Tense. Hence, we call in the aid of certain verbs, 
which are termed Auxiliaries or Helpers. We have one 
auxiliary of Voice ; several auxiliaries of Mood ; and three 
auxiliaries of Tense. 

I. AUXILIABY OF VOICE. 

376. The verb Be, joined to the perfect participle of a 
transitive verb, is used to form the Passive Voice : as, 

Active. Passive. 

Present, 1 love, Present, I am loved. 

Past, I loved, Past, I was loved. 

The verb be is thus conjugated : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is, 3. They are. 

k3 



202 RULES AND CAUTIONS, 



Past 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 
8. He was, 8. They were. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I be, 1. We be, 

2. Thou be, 2. You be, 
8. Hebe, 8. They be. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I were, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wert, 2. You were, 
8. He were, 8. They were. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

[to] be. 

Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . , , being. 
Gerund with to to be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present . . . being. 
Past .... been. 

The auxiliary verb he is not always the sign of the passive 
voice. With the present participle of transitive verbs, it 
denotes the present-imperfect tense of the active voice : as ^ I 
am loving,' * I am striking.' 

It is also employed in the present-imperfect tense of intran- 
sitive verbs, which are never used in the passive ; as, * I am 
walking,' * I am coming,' * I am going.' These would be 
rendered in Latin, ambulo, venio, eo. See § 846. 



TERES. 203 



II. AUXILIARIES OF MOOD. 

377. Several verbs, all more or less defective in their own 
conjugation, are used as auxiliaries to express the notions of 
possibility, permission, obligation, or necessity. The most 
remarkable of these are, may^ can^ must, dare, let, ought. 
The principal verb, dependent upon them, follows in the 
infinitive mood ; and the particle to is generally omitted 
before the infinitive, but not always. 



378. 1. May. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayest, 2. You may, 

3. He may, 3. They may. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightest, 2. You might, 

3. He might, 3. They might. 

This verb expresses permission : as, * He may go, if he likes.' 
It is also used to express a prayer, a wish, or a desire ; in which 
case it precedes the subject-nominative : as, * ]\Iay he prosper,' 
*May they be happy.' The beggars in Cork reverse this 
order : as, * The Lord may bless you,' * The Lord may spare 
you to your family.' 

379. 2. Can. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can, 3. They can. 



204 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



Past Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I could, 1. We coiild, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. He could, 3. They could. 

This verb denotes power, or capability, and is used to form 
what some grammarians call the Potential Mood. The verb 
can (A.-S. cunnan) originally signifies ^ to know,' and then 
^ to be able ; ' like savoir in French, as je sais le faire^ ' I know 
how to do it,' that is, ' I can (to) do it.' The past tense of 
the Anglo-Saxon verb is cu^e {ciidhe), whence the Old Eng- 
lish coud. The form ^ couZd ' has arisen from false analogy, 
from a fancied resemblance to would and should. But in these 
words / is part of the root ; whereas in ' couZd ' it is quite 
superfluous. 

380. 3. Must. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I must, 1. We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must, 3. They must. 

This verb is used to denote necessity. It has no inflection 
whatever, and there is some diflficulty in determining the ques- 
tion of tense. Dr. Latham says {English Language, § 607) : — 

* I can only say of this form [mw5^] that it is common to all 
persons, numbers, and tenses.' But compare Adams {Elements 
of the English Language, § 366). 

For my own part, I have always felt the want of a past tense 
in this auxiliary. For example, when we wish to translate 
from German such a phrase as e?' musste gehen, we cannot say 
' he must go.' We are obliged to give the sentence a turn : 

* he was obliged to go,' * he was bound to go,' ' he had to go.' 
We do, indeed, sometimes hear the phrase * he must needs go ; ' 
but the past tense of the verb must seems confined to that con- 
struction. 



VERBS. 205 



381. 4. Dare. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I dare or durst, 1. We dare or durst, 

2. Tliou darest or durst, 2. You dare or durst, 

3. He dares, dare, or durst, 3. They dare or durst. 

Past Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I dared or durst, 1. We dared or durst, 

2. Thou daredst or durst, 2. You dared or durst, 

3. He dared or durst, 3. They dared or durst. 

Dr. Latham says {English Language j § 598) : — ^Dare^ durst, 
— The verb dare is both transitive and intransitive. We can 
say either / dare do such a thing, or / dai^e (challenge) such u 
man to do it. This, in the present tense, is unequivocally 
correct. In the perfect, the double power of the v^''ord dai^e is 
ambiguous ; still it is, to my mind at least, allowable. We 
can certainly say, / dared him to accept my challenge ; and we 
can perhaps say, / dared not venture on the expedition. In this 
last sentence, however, durst is preferable. Durst is intransi- 
tive only. JDare can be used only in the present tense, dared 
in the perfect only. Durst can be used in either.' 

382. 5. Let. 

This verb is derived 'from the A.-S. Icetan, past tense let, 

perfect participle Iceten, which, according to Dr. Bosworth, 
bears four significations : 

1. To let, suffer, permit, to let be, leave — sinere. 

2. To let go, release, send, dismiss — mittere. 

3. To hinder, let, trifle — impedire. 

4. To admit, think, suppose, pretend — admittere, puiare. 

Mr. Wedgewood, in his Etymological Dictionary, endeavours^ 
to account for the two senses of let^ apparently the reverse of 
each other — (1) * to allow, permit,' or even ' to take measures 
for the execution of a purpose,' as when we say, * let me alone,' 
* let me go,' ^ let me have a letter to-morrow ; ' and (2) ' to 
hinder,' as ' I was let hitherto.' 



206 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

In his opinion the idea of slackening lies at the root of both 
applications of the term. When we speak of * letting one go,' 

* letting him do something,' we conceive of him as previously- 
restrained by a band, the loosening or slackening of which will 
permit the execution of the act in question. Thus the Latin 
laxare, * to slacken,' was used in later times in the sense of its 
modern derivatives, Italian lasciare, French laisser, ^ to let.' 
So modicum laxa stare, ' let it stand a little while : ' Muratori, 
Diss, 24, p. 365. 

At other times, Mr. Wedgewood thinks, the slackness is 
attiibuted to the agent himself, when let acquires the sense of 

* be slack in action,' ' delay,' or ^ omit doing,' 

And down he goth, no longer would he let. 
And with that word his counter door he shet. 

Chaucer. 

Then in a causative sense to let one from doing a thing is 

* to 7nake him let or omit to do it,' ' to hinder his doing it.' 

. On the other hand, Kichardson thinks that in let we have 
two distinct verbs, the same in spelling, but different in 
meaning : 

1. Let, *to give leave,' * permit,' he connects with Ger. 

lassen, Ital. lasciare, Fr. laisser, ' to relax,' * loosen.' 

2. Let, * to retard, delay, hinder,' he connects with Goth. 

latyan, and the adjective Icet, * late.' 

It is in the first of these significations that let is an auxiliary 
in English, commonly used in the first and third persons of 
the Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me go, 1. Let us go, 

3. Let him go, 3. Let them go. 

In Cork, the same auxiliary is frequently used with the second 
person : as, * let you sit here,' * let you go away.' 



383. 6. Ought. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I ought, 1. We ought, 

2. Thou oughtest, 2. You ought, 

3. He ought, 3. They ought. 



TERBS. 207 

Ought is properly the past tense of owe^ which originally 
meant * to own, possess : ' so Shakespeare, 

I am not worthy of the wealth I owe. 

AlVs Well, ii. 5. 

Not poppy, nor mandragora, 
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world. 
Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep 
Which thou ow*dst yesterday. 

Othello, iii. 3. 

In the following passage, the verb is used in two senses : 
* to be bound to pay ' and * to own : ' 

Be pleased then 
To pay that duty, which you truly owe, 
To him that owes it, namely, this young prince. 

King John, ii. 1. 

Dr. Latham remarks, {English Language, § 605,) that we 
can say, ^ I owe money ; ' but we cannot say, ^ I owe to pay 
some ; ' while, on the other hand, we cannot say, ^ I ought 
money,' though we can say, * I ought to pay some.' The 
effect of this towfbld sense has been to separate the words owe, 
and ought, by giving to the former the modern prseterite owed. 
It has also deprived ought of its * present ' form. 

The auxiliary ought has lost its original force as a past 
tense, and is used as a present. Hence, when we wish to state 
that some duty was imperative in time past, we annex the 
auxiliary have to the dependent infinitive : as, * he ought to 
have gone.' This must be remembered in translating into 
Latin : * he ought to have gone ' is dehuit ire, literally, * he 
did owe to go.' 

in. AUXIUAEIES OF TENSE. 
384. These are have, shall, will. 

1. Have. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hasf, 2. You have, 

3. He has, 3. They have. 



208 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



Past Tense. - 
Singular. - Plural. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He had, 3. They had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou have, 2. You have, 

3. He have, 3. They have. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou had, 2. You had, 

3. He had, 3. They had. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
have. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
[to] have. 

Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . . having. 
Gerund with to to have. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present having. 

Perfect . . . .' . . . had. 

This auxiliary is joined with the perfect participle, and forms 
the perfect tenses : as. 

Present-perfect ... I have written. 
Past-perfect ... I had written. 
Future-perfect ... I shall have written. 



YERBS. 209 

Shall and ivill are joined to tlie infinitive mood of a prin- 
cipal verb, to denote the future. 

385. 2. Shall. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shaU, 1. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 2. You shaU, 

3. He shall, 8. They shaU. 

Past Tense, 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should, 3. They should. 

The original meaning of this verb is ^ owe ' (A.-S. sceal). So 
Chaucer, ' By the faithe I schal to God,' i.e., ' I owe to God.' 
And so Eobert of Gloucester, * al that to Eome sholde servise,' 
i.e., ^ owed service.' 

Should, when used as an independent verb, means ought : 
as, * You should be careful ' — * You ought to be careful.' 

386. 3. Will. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I wiU, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. You wiU, 

3. He win, 3. They wiU. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would, 3. They would. 

Will is also used as an independent verb. Hence we find the 
infinitive [to] will, and the participle willing. 



210 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

387. Besides these, we have an auxiliary in constant use, 
the verb cZo, which is employed in various significations. 

Do. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does, 3. They do. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did, 3. They did. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou do, 2. You do, 

3. He do, 3. They do. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou did, 2. You did, 

3. He did, 3. They did. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD, 
do. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

[to] do. 

Gerund {or Infinitive) in -ing . . . doing. 
Gerund with to to do. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present doing 

Past done. 



VERBS. 211 

388. This verb is used as an auxiliary, 

1. For emphasis : as, * When they do agree, their unani- 

mity is wonderful.' 

2. In negations : as, * I do not like it.' As a general rule, 

the negative stands between do and the dependent 
infinitive : as, * I do not think.' But after neither or 
Tior, the auxiliary do follows immediately, and pre- 
cedes the subject-nominative: as, * neither does he 
wish,' ' nox dol think.' 

3. In questions : as, ' Does he say so ? ' * Do they not 

consent ? ' or ' Do not they consent ? ' often con- 
tracted ^ Do-iPbt they consent ? ' 

4. After an adverb, or an adverbial phrase, the auxiliary 

do follows immediately, and precedes the subject- 
nominative : 

Once again 
Do I behold those steeps and lofty cliffs. 

Wordsworth* 

5. In reply to a question with an ellipsis of the depen- 
dent infinitive : as, 

Portia. Do you confess the bond ? 

Antonio, I do. 

Merchant of Venice^ iv. 5. 
See Adams, Elements of the English Language ^ § 617. Here, 
when Antonio says * I do,' he means ' I do confess.' 

389. Caution, Whenever we employ any part of the verb 
do^ in reference to some principal verb in the former part of 
a sentence, there is risk of error ; and, in particular, the 
reference to an intransitive verb is open to cavil. Take this 
example : 

It is somewhat unfortunate, that this paper did not end, 
as it might very well have done^ with the former 
beautiful period. — Blair, Rhetoric ^ xxiii. 

A caviller might ask, * done what ? ' Surely not ' done 
ending.' In such constructions, it is better to repeat the 
principal verb ; ' did not end, as it might very well have 
ended, ^ Repetition is sometimes disagreeable, and tends to 
enfeeble a sentence ; but it is always preferable to ambiguity. 
See Cobbett, Grammar^ § 273. 

390- Dr. Latham points out that we have in English two 
distinct words which assume the form do. In the phrase 



212 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

* this will dOy'* meaning ' this will answer the purpose,' he 
considers the word do wholly different from do = act. 

1. The word in common use do, meaning * to act,' is 
from the A.-S. don, and corresponds to the German 
thun, 

2. The word do, meaning * to answer the purpose,' is 
from the A.-S. dugan, and corresponds to the German 
taugen. 

He quotes the following passages in illustration of the 
second meaning. The past tense deih occurs in these lines : 
Philip of Flaundres fleih, and turned sonne the bak ; 
And Thebald nouht he deih, 

Bohert of Bourne, 133. 
(Philip of Flanders fled, and turned soon the back ; 
And Thebald did no good,) 
The king Isaak fleih, his men had no foyson, 
All that time he ne deih, 

Robert of Bourne, 159. 
(King Isaac fled, his men had no provisions, 
All that time h.Q prospered not.) 

The present / dow, in the sense of / can, occurs in Burns : 
I'll laugh, an' sing, an' shake my leg 
As lang's I dow. 

See Latham, English Language, § 593. 

IMPERSONALS. 

391. When a verb is used without any apparent subject- 
nominative it is called an Impersonal Verb. 

Some grammarians contend that verbs of this kind are not 
Impersonal ; but that they are used in the third person, and 
in the third person only. Hence they propose to call such 
verbs UnipersonaL 

In English we commonly prefix the neuter pronoun it 
before the so-called Impersonals. 

Dr. Lowth says : ' It rains ; it shines ; it thunders.' From 
which examples it plainly appears, that there is no such thing 
in English, nor indeed in any language, as a sort of Verbs 
which are really impersonal. The agent or person in English 
is expressed by the neuter pronoun ; in some other languages 
it is omitted, but understood.' Lowth, English Grammar, 
p. 110. 



YETIBS. 213 

Dr. Latham admits three Impersonals : (1) methinks, (2) 
7neseems, (3) me lisfelh. The word thinks in ^ methinks ' is 
from the Anglo-Saxon thincan, ' to seem,' and not from 
thencan, * to think.' Hence ^ methinks ' and ^ meseems ' both 
signiiy ' it seems to me ; ' for 7ne is here the old dative. See 
Latham, English Grammar^ § 205. 

But Dr. Adams, Elements of the English Language^ § 27 6, 
will not aUow that even these are Impersonals ; for he argues 
that the subject is expressed in the words that follow or pre- 
cede the verb. Thus in the sentence, 

Methinks the lady doth protest too much, 
he would make ' the lady doth protest too much ' a subject- 
nominative (noun-clause) to the verb ^ thinks.' 

It may be, as Dr. Lowth maintains, that there are no such 
things as Impersonal Verbs in any language. But the omis- 
sion of it is more common with our older poets, than some of 
the grammarians seem to imagine : 
So Chaucer : 

Byfel that in that sesoun on a day 
In Southwark at the Tabard as I lay. 

Canterbury Tales, Prologue. 
and so Spenser : 

Seemed in heart some hidden care she had, 
And by her in a line, a milk-white lamb she lad. (i.e, led.) 

Faerie Queene^ I. i. 4. 
' Now,' saide the ladie, * draweth toward night.' 

ibid. I. i. 32. 
May seeme the wayne was very evil ledd, 
When such an one had guiding of the way, 
That knew not, whether right he went, or else astray. 

ibid. I. iv. 19. 

CAUTIONS. 

392. In no points of grammar do even good writers more 
frequently make mistakes than in the use of verbs. 

' I intended to have written last week ' is a very common 
phrase ; but it is certainly vicious. For how long soever it 
now is since ^ I intended,' still the act of writing was then 
present to my mind, and must be considered as present when 
I recall that time, and the thoughts of it. Therefore, we, 
should say, ' I intended to write last week.' Take the follow- 
ing examples : — 



214 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose busi- 
ness it should have been, as it certainly was their 
interest, to have interposed their good offices. — Swift. 

There were two circumstances, which would have 
made it necessary for them to have lost no time. — Id. 

History-painters would have found it difficult to 
have invented such a species of beings. — Addison, 
Dialogue on Medals. 

In these passages, the infinitives should be to interpose, to lose^ 
to invent. 

So Goldsmith says : 

I called on him, and wished to have submitted my 
manuscript to him. 

This should be * wished to submit.' For the meaning is, ' I 
wished then and there to submit my manuscript to him.' I 
wished to do something there, and did not then wish that / had 
done something before. 

So here : * I did not speak yesterday so well as I wished to 
have done."* The meaning intended is * so well as I wished to 
speak.' The use of the auxiliary do is not elegant in such 
constructions ; but if used at all, it should stand * so well as I 
wished to do!' 

On the other hand, in this sentence, * T had not the pleasure 
of hearing his sentiments when I wrote that letter,' we ought 
to say having heard instead of hearing if we mean to imply 
that the hearing did not take place before the v/riting of the 
letter. See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 124 ; and Cobbett, 
English Grammar, § 249. 



Sequence of Tenses, 

393. The sequence of tenses should be carefully observed ; 
so that the tenses in an accessory or subordinate clause may 
not be inconsistent with those of the principal sentence. 

Take this example : 

Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. 
In two clauses thus connected, when the principal verb is in 
the present or the future, the verb in the accessory clause can- 
not be in the past tense. The words, therefore, ought to have 
been translated * that ye may have life.' 

On the contrary, had the principal verb been in the past 



VERBS. 215 

tense, the verb in the accessory clause would be correctly put 
in the past tense also : as, 

Ye would not come unto me, that ye might have life, 
or. 

Ye did not come unto me, that ye might have life. 
hut J 

Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. 

Dryden writes : 

Some, who the depths of Eloquence have found, 
In that unnavigable Stream were drowned. 

Dryden, Juvenal^ Satire x. 

The event mentioned in the first line is connected with pre- 
sent time by the present-perfect tense have found. But the 
fact stated in the second line is referred to past time, by the 
past tense were drowned. Now the last-mentioned event must 
be subsequent to the first, and therefore there is an incon- 
sistency between the facts stated and the tenses employed. 
Therefore, we ought to have either 

(1) in the second line, ''are or have Jee;i drowned ' in the 

present-indefinite or present-perfect, which would 
be consistent with the present-perfect have found 
in the first line ; 
or, 

(2) in the first line we ought to read had found in the 

past-perfect tense, which would be consistent with 
the past- indefinite were drowned in the second 
line. 
Pope writes : 

Friend to my life, which did you not prolong. 
The world had wanted many an idle song. 

Pope, Epistle to Arhuthnot, 
Here ,the construction is inconsistent. It ought to be, ' had 
you not prolonged ... the world had wanted,' or * did you 
not prolong . . . the world would want,'' 

394. Dr. Campbell thinks, that in expressing abstract or 
universal truths the present tense of the verb ought, according 
to the idiom of our language, and perhaps of every language, 
always to be employed. According to this view, the sentence 
' He said that there was no God ' is incorrect, because God 
always exists ; and it ought to be, ^ He said that there is no 
God.' Yet the Doctor admits that this peculiarity in the pre- 



216 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

sent has sometimes been overlooked, even by good authors, 
who, when speaking of a past event which occasions the men- 
tion of some general truth, are led to use the same tense in 
enunciating the general truth with that which has been em- 
ployed in the preceding part of the sentence. See Campbell, 
Philosophy of Rhetoric^ p. 185. 

Dr. Webster, in the preface to his English Dictionary^ takes 
the same view, and condemns the following construction : — 
^ Then Manasseh hiew that the Lord he was God,' 2 Chron. 
xxxiii. 13. In order to show the impropriety of the past 
tense was^ he remarks that the present tense is that which is 
used to express what exists at all times : thus we say * God is ' 
or ^ exists ' whenever we speak of his permanent existence. 
The German version reads, ^ Da erkannte Manasse, dass der 
Herr Gott ist^^ and this, as far as it goes, corroborates the view 
taken by Dr. Campbell and Dr. Webster. But their reason 
does not appear to be quite satisfactory. It is true, that in 
principal sentences the present is used to express general pro- 
positions, or ^ what exists at all times.' Rut it is not quite so 
clear that the rule applies to the verb in a subordinate or 
accessory clause. The Latins, in a reported speech, throw 
the verbs of subordinate sentences into the subjunctive mood ; 
and though in English we do not vary the mood in a reported 
speech, I am inclined to think that a variation of tense is 
agreeable to the idiom of our language. It is confessed that 
good authors use this construction ; and in conversation most 
persons would express themselves thus : 

He says^ that there is no God. 
He saidj that there was no God. 

To allege the permanent existence of God is nothing to the 
purpose, because this is merely a question of grammar, and 
most persons would expound these sentences in the following 
way : 

1. He 5az/s, that there is no God = He denies the ex- 

istence of God. 

2. He said, that there was no God = He denied the ex- 

istence of God. 

No one would interpret the second sentence as signifying a 
denial of past existence, in opposition to present or future 
existence. 

395. In accordance with his theory, Dr. Webster under- 
takes to correct this passage : 



VERBS. 217 

If my readers will turn their thoughts back on their old 
friends, they will find it difficult to call a single man 
to remembrance who appeared to know that life was 
short \_is short J, till he was about to lose it. 

Rambler^ No. 71. 

396. But beside this, we find the past tense used in acces- 
sory clauses where other languages would employ a future 
indicative, or some tense of the subjunctive mood. Take the 
following examples, with Dr. Webster's corrections : 

It was declared by Pompey, that if the commonwealth 
ivas [should be] violated, he could stamp with his foot 
and raise an army out of the ground. — Rambler^ No. 10. 

And he said. Nay, father Abraham, but if one went [shall 

(or) should go] to them from the dead, they will 

repent. And he said unto him, If they hear not 

Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded, 

though one rose [shall (or) should rise] from the 

dead. — Luke xvi. 30, 31. 

i 

Our verbs are very deficient in forms of the subjunctive 
mood ; and were anyone to contend that went and rose are past 
tenses subjunctive^ there is nothing in the form to contradict 
him. The verb was in the extract from Rambler, No. 10, is 
against that explanation ; for was must be considered indica- 
tive. If I made any change at all, in that passage, I would 
read, * It was declared by Pompey, that if the commonwealth 
were violated, &c.' 

397. I have oflen thought, that the doctrine of the subjunc- 
tive might be used to defend a passage condemned as bad 
English, by some grammarians. It is this : 

I had fainted, unless I had believed to see the goodness 
of the Lord in the land of the living. — Psalm xxvii. 13. 

We are told, that this ought to be, ^ I should have fainted.' 
But if had be taken as the past tense subjunctive (German 
hdtte), the construction may be defended. 

398. In the following sentence, there is an error in the use 
of mood : 

If thou bring thy gifl to the altar, and there rememberest 
that thy brother hath ought against thee. — Matt. v. 23. 

The construction of the two verbs bring and rememberest 

L 



218 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

ought to be the same ; yet the one is in the subjunctive mood, 
and the other in the indicative. We should read, 

If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there remember^ &c., 
or, . 

If thou bringest thy gift to the altar, and there remem- 
berestj &c. 
The same mood should be employed in both clauses. 

399. When two or more auxiliaries are used in reference to 
one principal verb, care should be taken that the form of the 
principal verb be applicable to each of the auxiliaries. Take 
this sentence : 

This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, 
iSy or shall be published. 

The auxiliary has makes no sense in connection with pub- 
lished. It requires the addition of been. We should read : 
This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has 
been or shall be published. 

' The word iSj adding nothing to the sense, may advanta- 
geously be omitted. 
So in this passage : 

I shall do all I can to persuade others to taJce the same 
measures for their cure which I have. 

Here, we find have referred to the verb take. Yet it is not 
the word take which the sense demands, but taken. The par- 
ticiple, therefore, ought to have been added : * which I have 
taken.' 

See Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric^ p. 186. 



POSITION. 

400. In Indicative sentences the verb generally follows the 
subject-nominative ; but in Interrogative sentences the subject- 
nominative follows the principal verb or the auxiliary : as, 
* Was he there ? ' * Did Alexander conquer ? ' 

In older English, and in poetry, the use of the principal 
verb, in the first place of an interrogative sentence, is not un- 
common : 

Says the king so ? 

Stands Scotland where it did ? — Macbeth^ iv. 3. 



VERBS. 219 

Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 
This is my own, my native land ? 

Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel^ vi. 1-3. 

401. When several interrogative clauses follow one another, 
care must be taken to use all the verbs consistently. Take 
this example : 

Did he not fear the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the 
Lord repented him of the evil, which he had pronounced 
against him ? — Jeremiah xxvi. 19. 

Here the interrogative and indicative forms are confounded. 
It ought to be : 

Did he not fear the Lord, and beseech the Lord ? and did 
not the Lord repent him of the evil ? 

So in this passage : 

If a man have an hundred sheep, and one of them be gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth 
into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone 
astray? — Matt, xviii. 12. 

It ought to be go and seek ; that is, ^ doth he not go and seek 
that which is gone astray ? ' 

402. In negative sentences the adverb not is placed after 
the auxiliary, or sometimes after the principal verb itself: as, 

it did not touch him,' ^ it touched him not.' 
Older writers frequently place the negative before the prin- 
cipal verb : as, 

For men 
Can counsel and speak comfort to that grief 
Which they themselves not feel. 

Much Ado about Nothing^ v. i. 

lago. Good name, in man and woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls : 

Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing; 
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; 
But he that filches from me my good name, 
Robs me of that which 7iot enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. 

Othello^ iii. 3. 
The merry Greek, tart Aristophanes, 
Neat Terence, witty Plautus, now not please, 
1.2 



220 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

But antiquated and deserted lie, 
As they were not of nature's family. 

Ben Jonson, To the Memory of Shakespeare. 

I hope, my lord, said he, I not offend. 

Dryden, Fables, 



Chapter XI. 
GENERAL REMARKS ON PARTICLES. 

403. Under the term * Particles/ we include the words 
commonly called Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Prepositions. 

It is not always possible to draw the line between these, as 
the same word may be at one time a preposition, at another an 
adverb or a conjimction. Thus hefore^ in the phrase ' before 
sunset,' is a preposition ; but in the sentence ' before the sun 
sets,' it is commonly called a conjunction. Dr. Morell terms 
it a continuative conjunction, Mr. Mason thinks that it should 
rather be classed among the adverbs. Professor Bain calls it 
a relative adverb^ or a subordinating conjunction. 

Now, if giiimmarians would candidly confess that the so- 
called Parts of Speech cannot always be discriminated, they 
would save themselves and their followers a world of per- 
plexity. Instead of this, they lay down dogmatic rules, which 
are not always appUcable, and then they try to make their 
cause good by numerous exceptions and counter- exceptions. 
It is no wonder that young persons are utterly distracted, or 
that they consider the study of grammar duU and unpro- 
fitable. 

But if the inductive method were followed, much of this 
perplexity would vanish. Pupils should be taught to observe 
the usage of words in their reading ; to compare one phrase 
wuth another ; to suspend judgment ; and gradually to arrive 
at general principles. In this way they would acquire the 
habits of observation and comparison ; they would learn to 
think and to reason ; and Grammar would form an excellent 
introduction to Logic. 

404- In order to concentrate the difficulties which pervade 
this part of the subject, we shaU devote a separate chapter to 



ADVERBS. 221 

those doubtflil words, which are variously termed Conjunctive 
Adverbs, Adverbial Conjunctions, Relative Adverbs, Subordi- 
nating Conjunctions, Continuative Conjunctions, &c., &c. 

Thus, we shall be able to obtain a clearer view of Adverbs 
and Conjunctions properly so called ; and the student will 
perceive wherein the difficult part of the investigation specially 
consists. 



Chapter XII. 
ADYEEBS. 



Oninis pars orationis, quando desinit esse quod est, migrat 
in Adverbiiim. — Seevius. 

405. The passage quoted from Servius is thus humorously 
construed by HorneTooke: — Omnis pars oratioms, * every 
word/ qiiando desinit esse quod est, ' when a grammarian 
knows not what to make of it/ migrat in Adverbium, ^ he calls 
an Adverb.' 

But, according to Sir John Stoddart, the expression of 
Servius is literally true : Omnis pars orationis migrat in Ad^ 
verhium. * Every part of speech is capable of being converted 
into an Adverb.' 

Servius saw part of the truth ; and his remark is capable of 
a wider application. The character of a word is determined 
by its function or usage in a sentence : hence every part of 
speech, when * it ceases to be what it is,' undergoes a change 
of function, and partakes of a new character. There can be 
little doubt, as Home Tooke has sho^vn, that the particle if 
was originally gif, the imperative of the verb gifan, '• to give,' 
and was used in making a supposition, or asking for an ad- 
mission, ^ grant,' * suppose.' In course of time its verbal 
power was forgotten ; its initial g was lost ; and the word 
remained as an introductory pai*ticle. But Home Tooke was 
wrong in supposing that because all particles were originally 
nouns or verbs, they remain so stiU, and that their function is 
not changed. For he keeps out of sight, as self-evident, the 
other premiss, which is absolutely false — namely, that the 
meaning and force of a word, now, and for ever, must be that 



222 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

which it, or its root, originally bore. See Whateley, Logic^ 
iii. § 14. Compare §§ 445, 461. 

406. The usual definition given of an Adverb is to this 
effect : 

^ An Adverb is a word used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or 
other adverbs.' 

But a distinction is set up between two kinds of adverbs : — 
(1) Simple Adverbs, (2) Eelative or Conjunctive Adverbs. 

(1) A Simple Adverb qualifies the word with which it is 
used : ^ They came yesterday ^^ ' He is always ready.' Here the 
definition is immediately applicable. 

(2) A Eelative or Conjunctive Adverb is said to be one 
which not only qualifies the word with which it is used, but 
also serves to connect clauses in a sentence: as, ' He comes 
ivhen he likes.' 

In the present chapter we shall confine our attention to 
Simple Adverbs, reserving the second class for consideration 
in Chapter XIV. 

407. A question may arise, how we ought to treat those 
sentences, where an adverb is used with a verb which merely 
expresses existence : as, ^ he is well,^ ' he is asleep.^ It may 
be asked, for example, whether the word well is here an 
adverb or an adjective. In the English language, this word 
is so far adverbial, that it cannot be used to qualify a substan- 
tive : we cannot say ^ a well man,' any more than we can say 
* an asleep man.' Yet these words stand in the place of pre- 
dicates, and have the force of adjectives. We may allow that 
they are adverbs used as predicates: see §§ 5, 6. But after 
all, this is only another proof how difficult it is to draw a 
sharp line between the various parts of speech. 

In Greek, an adverb placed between an article and a noun, 
or with the article alone, has the force of an adjective. A 
similar construction is sometimes found in English : as, 

Our then dictator. 
Whom with all praise I point at, saw him fight. 

CoriolanuSy ii. 2. 

Drink no longer water, but use a little wine, for thy 
stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities. — 1 Timothy, 
V. 23. 



ADVERBS. 223 

408. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives, nouns, and 
pronouns. 

1. Adverbs derived from Adjectives, 

We saw, §§ 22, 23, that some adjectives appear to be used 
adverbially, having lost the final e, which in Anglo-Saxon 
was the distinctive mark of an adverb formed from an adjec- 
tive. These are chiefly words of Anglo-Saxon origin : as, 
clean ^ fastj hard, ill, late, long, loud, right, sore, soft, thick, 
wide, wrong. We shall discuss these severally. 

We also saw the origin of the termination -Zy, which, though 
originally the mark of an adjective, came to be regarded as an 
adverbial suffix. In Anglo-Saxon -lie was an adjective ter- 
mination, and -lice an adverbial. We have still in English 
some adjectives ending in -li/, as god-ly, love-ly, lone-ly, and 
to these we cannot add another -ly to form adverbs. The 
word * godly ' has an adverbial force in the phrase, ^ to live 
soberly, righteously, and godly.' 

409. We shall now consider those words, in which the 
adjective and adverbial forms coincide, in modern English : 

clean, A.-S. clcen, adjective; clcene, adverb. The ad- 
verbial use of clean, in the sense of ' entirely,' is found 
in the authorised version of the Scriptures : as. 
Is his mercy clean gone for ever, doth his promise fail for 
evermore ? — Psalm Ixxvii. 8. 
The same usage still prevails in some provincial dialects. 

fast. A.-S. fcest, adjective ; foeste, adverb. The English 
fast is used as an adjective and an adverb: ^ It was 
fast,^ ' He ran fast,^ 

hard, A.-S. ^ea^-cZ, adjective; hearde, adverb. In English, 
hard is an adjective, and both hard and hardly are 
adverbs, but with a difference of meaning. Hard 
means ' with force or severity,' as, * He hits hard ; ' but 
hardly means scarcely. Some persons, wishing to be 
accurate, say, ^ He hits hardly,^ meaning ' He hits 
hard,^ But * He hits hardly ' might mean ^ He scarcely 
hits.' 

ill or evil, A.-S. yfel, adjective ; yfele, adverb. In English, 
evil and ill are used as adjectives ; and ill as an adverb. 
The form evilly is sometimes found, but is not generally 
approved. 



224 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

late, A.-S. IcBt or lat, adjective; Icete or late^ adverb. The 
English late is used as an adjective, and as an adverb : 
* He was late,'' * He came late,^ The form lateli/ is 
used in the sense of ' recently.' 

long. A.-S. lang or long, adjective ; lange or longe, adverb. 
In English the form longly is never used. 

loud. A.-S. hludj adjective ; hlude, adverb. The English 
lotid is used as an adjective, and as an adverb : as, 

Curses, not loud, but deep. — Macbeth, v. 3. 
And the singers sang loud. — Nehemiah xii. 42. 

The three forms loud, aloud, and loudly, are used 
as adverbs : 

right. A.-S. riht, adjective ; rihte, adverb. In English, 
the forms right, aright, and rightly are used as adverbs. 

soft. A.-S. seft or soft, adjective ; sefte or softe, adverb. In 
poetry, the adverbial use of soft is common : as, ' And 
soft he said,' * aSo/I^ sighed the flute.' In prose, softly 
is more common. 

sore. A.-S. sar, ' sore, painful,' adjective ; sare, ^ sorely, 
painfully,' adverb. In older English, sore is used ad- 
verbially : as, * He wept sore.^ 

thick. A.-S. thic, adjective; thicce, adverb. In English, 
the forms thick and thickly are used as adverbs. 

wide. A.-S. wid, adjective ; wide, adverb. The word is 
used as an adverb in this passage : 

Is my lord well, that he doth speak so wide ? — Much 
Ado, iv. 1. 

wrong. Home Tooke derives this word from wrung, the 
participle of the verb wring, and explains it ^ wrung or 
wrested from the " right " or " ordered " line of con- 
duct.' See Diversions of Purley, ii. 91, 101. Mr. 
Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology, 
gives a similar explanation. He says wrong is * what 
is wrung or turned aside from the right or straight 
way to the desired end.' He compares the Danish 
vrcenge, * to twist ; ' vrang, ' wrong ; ' and Old Norse 
rangr, * wry,' ^ crooked,' ^ unjust.' 

Wrong is used adverbially in the following passages : — 

Portia. You must take your chance ; 
And either not attempt to choose at all. 



ADVERBS. 225 

Or swear, before you choose, if you choose wrong^ 

Never to speak to lady afterward 

In way of marriage ; therefore be advised. 

Merchant of Venice^ ii. 1. 

In choosing wrong ^ 
I lose your company. Ibid. iii. 2. 

2. Adverbs derived from Nouns. 

410. In many languages, nouns in an oblique case are used 
as adverbs. For example, the noun home is used adverbially, 
in the literal sense, ^ to go home ' (aller a la maison), and in a 
figurative sense, to denote ' thoroughly,' ' entirely ; ' as, 

Cloten, Where is she, sir ? Come nearer ; 
No further halting ; satisfy me home 
What is become of her. 

Cymheline^ iii. 5. 

Imogen, That confirms it home : 

This is Pisanio's deed, and Cloten' s. 

Ibid, iv. 2. 

It is true that our home appears to be the same in form as 
the nominative home. But a reference to the Latin shows 
the distinction. The nominative in Latin is domus, but our 
hom.e answers to the accusative domum^ and our at home to 
domi, 

Vossius observes of domi focique in Terence, EunuckuSy act iv. 
scene 7, that ' without doubt they are genitives used adverbially.' And 
Donatus goes further, calling not only these genitives, but accusatives 
and ablatives, adverbs. He thinks that Eamm, Eomam^ Boond, igno- 
rantly considered nouns, are adverbs of place : ' Bo/ncB, Bcrniam, Bomd, 
sunt adverbia loci, quae imprudentes putant nomina. In loco, ut sum 
BomcB ; de loco, ut Bomd venio ; ad locum, ut Bomam pergo.' — Sir 
John Stoddart, Universal Grammar, p. 106. 

Professor Key thinks, that domi is not a genitive, but a ' dative 
in f , with the meaning at ;' so also, huini, * on the ground,' helli, ' in 
war,' ruri, 'in the country.' He considers that this dative, denoting 
place, [hence termed by some grammarians the ' locative,'] maintained 
itself in certain words, in spite of the increasing tendency to express this 
idea by the preposition in and an ablative. See Latin Grammar , § 1 1 -t? 
and compare § 952 of the same G-rammar. 

411. We seem to have genitive cases in the words eft- 
soons (^ soon after'), outwards, unawares, and needs, in the 
phrase ^he needs must go.' Sometimes may be a genitive 
singular, or plural objective. 

L 3 



226 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 



following are possibly genitives : — 

else^ old English el-es, ell-es, els 


once 
hence 
thence 
since 


J? 


on-es 
henn-es 
thenn-es 
sithen-s. 



The terminations wise and ways are liable to be con- 
founded. The Anglo-Saxon wise is a noun signifying * man- 
ner ; ' hence otherwise means ' in another manner.' 

We find always^ noways^ and nowise. Dr. Adams, Ele- 
ments of the English Language^ § 396, says, that the form 
ways is not connected with the word way^ ^ a road.' But 
compare the German aUe-wege, ^ all- ways,' with the French 
toujours, ^ all-days,' and tons les jours, ^ all the days.' 

412. Whilom. A.-S. hwilum, hwylum, hwilon. This is con- 
sidered to be a dative plural from the nouns hwil, 
hwile, ' a while, time,' from which oiu* adverb a-while, 
' for a time,' is probably derived. According to this 
view, whilom signifies * at whiles,' * at times.' 

seldom, A.-S. seld, seldan, seldon. Whether the termination 
-om in this instance marks a dative, may be doubted.' 
Seld is used in composition by Shakespeare : 

Seld'shown flam ens 
Do press among the popular throngs, and puff 
To win a vulgar station. 

Coriolanus, ii. 1. 

413. Beside^ between^ and because are respectively ^by side,' 
^ by twain,' (i. e. ^ near two '), and ^ by cause,' also used in the 
sense of ^ by reason.' 

The s in besides is not easy to explain. Dr. Adams con- 
siders it as the mark of an old genitive besid-es. But this is 
very doubtful. 

3. Adverbs having the prefix a, 

414. The prefix a is of different origin in different adverbs, 
and demands very close examination. 

1. Sometimes it represents the A.-S. preposition an, in, on, 
* in,' * on ; ' not only with substantives, as a-bed, a-boardj 
o-shore ; but also with adjectives, as a-broad, a-loud. 

2. Sometimes it represents the preposition of, as a-new, ' of 
new,' de novo : compare ' of late.' 



ADVERBS. 227 

8. It also represents the A.-S. participial prefix ge^ Early 
English ye : as a-drift, 

4. It stands for the indefinite article a, as a-while, * for a 
time.' 

415. We shall take examples of each. 

1. a representing the preposition an, in, on, 'in,' * on.' 
Prefixed to nouns, 

a-hacJc, a-hed, a-hlaze, a-hoard, a-hreast, a-fire, a-foot, 
a-gape, a-ground, a-head, arrjar, a-loft, ashore, aslant, 
asleep, a-steim, astride. 

We may remark that several of these are nautical terms, 
and others might be quoted, as a-midships, a-thwartships, ^c. 

For the sake of illustration, we add the following notes: — 
a-bacJc, A.-S. on bmc, ' on back.' 

Gang thu on besc, 
Gro thou on hack, 

* Gret thee hence/ — Matt, iv. 10. 
Gra on hmc. 
G-o on hack. 
* Get thee behind me.' — Mark viii. 33. 

a-jar. This is explained as on char, * on the turn,' * half open/ from 
A.-S. cer, cyr, ' a turn,' verb ceorran, cerran, ' to turn.' 

The form on char is used by Gawain Douglas, in his Translation of 
Virgil : 

Ane schot wyndo tmschet ane litel on char. 

See Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, * ajar J 

a-loft. ' On loft,' ' up in the air.' German, in der Luft \ Scottish, 
in the lift ; so Burns : 

* It is the moon, I ken her horn. 

That's blinking in the lift sae hie, 
She shines sae bright to wyle us hame, 
But, by my sooth, she'll wait a wee ! * 

tt'live. This word appears in older English as on lyve, on Hue ; as, 

By God, quoth he, that wol I tel as bliue, 
For prouder woman is there none on Hue, 

Chaucer, Troihis. 

Inquire whether live is here a noun ' life,' or an adjective as in the 
phrase ' on loud.' 

We find the prefix before adjectives in a-broad, a-loud, 
a thwart. 

The use of the preposition in or on with adjectives is not 



228 EULES AND CAUTIONS, 

uncommon in modern English : we have ^ in vain,' ^ in secret,* 
* on high.' 

We have authority to prove the form on broad: Gawain 
Douglas (quoted by Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ 
p. 77) has 

His baner quhite as floure 
In sign of battell did on hrede display. 
So too : 

But it ne was so sprede on hrede^ 
That men within might know the sede. 

Roman de la Rose, 

We observe a prefixed to adverbs in a-far^ a-gain, 

a- gain. A.-S. on-gean^ on-gen, an-gean, a-gean, a-gen. 

In Anglo-Saxon gen itself is an adverb, signifying 

* again,' ^ moreover,' ^ besides.' 

416- — 2. a representing the preposition of. 

a-down. In Anglo-Saxon dun signifies * a hill ' ; whence 
our North Downs, and South Downs. Then of-dune, 
' from hill,' * downward,' ^ down,' appears in the form 
a-diine, adun, whence our * a-down,' * down.' Mr. 
Wedgwood compares the Old French a mont^ * to the 
hill,' and a val, ' to the valley,' used in the sense of 
' upwards ' and ^ downwards ' respectively. Down is 
used as a preposition. 

a- new. That this word represents of neiv, we may infer 
from a line of Gawain Douglas : 

The battellis were adjoinit now of new. 
Compare the Latin de novo. 

417. — 3. The participial force of a is seen in a-drift ; 
unless the particle in that word is a verbal prefix. For, in 
Anglo-Saxon, there are two verbs, drifan^ participle ge-drifan\ 
and a-drifan^ ' drive away,' participle adrifed. 

The participial a may possibly be seen in afloat, a-miss, 

418. The prefix a sometimes has the force of * from,' ^ out,' 
a^, perhaps, in a-way, * out of the Vvay.' 

The following words are of doubtful derivation : a-ghast, 
a-Jcimbo, a-loof a-skance, a-ska?it, askew, a-stray. The 
roots of these words may be traced in other languages, but the 
force of the prefix a is not clear. 

afore is from A.-S. cet-foran, ^ at-fore.' 



ADYERBS. 



229 



4. Adverbs derived from Pronouns, 

419. Adverbs formed from Pronoims, sometimes termed 
Pronominal Adverbs, form a large class. 

For instance, the words here and there ; hence and thence^ 
are manifestly derived from demonstrative pronouns; they 
signify * at this place/ * at that place ; ' ' from this place,' ^ from 
that place.' Similarly where and whence are related to the 
interrogative and relative pronouns. 

It so happens, that the adverbs of place exhibit three va- 
rieties, to express * at a place,' * from a place,' and * to a place.' 
The adverbs of time, manner, and cause are not so com- 
pletely developed. The following table will show this dif- 
ference : — 

where 

whence 

whither, 

when 

how 

why. 

We observe, that here^ hence, hither , are related to the pro- 
noun he. There, thence, thither to that", where, whence, 
whither to who, what. Similarly then and when are related to 
that and what. Why is related to who ; and how may pos- 
sibly be related to both he and who, 

420. The following table exhibits the same adverbs in 
another form : — 



1. Place here 


there 


hence , 


thence 


hither . 


thither 


2. Time 


then 


3. Manner . 


thus 


4. Cause 


• • • • 





Place 


Motion 
from 


Motion 
to 


Time 


Manner 


Cause 


Demon- 
strative 


here 


hence 


hither 




how 




Demon- 
strative 


there 


thence 


thither 


then 


thus 




Interro- 
gative 
and 
Belative 


where 


whence 


whither 


when 


how 


why 



230 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Compare Adams, Elements of the English Language^ 
§ 268. 

421. These adverbs are frequently compounded with pre- 
positions: as here-of there-of where-of here-in, there-in, 
where-in, here-hy^ there-hy, where-hy, and many others. 

In the simple forms, here and thej^e are principally con- 
fined to significations of place ; whereas in the compounds 
they may refer to things ; for example, here-of may denote 
* of this,' there-of may signify * of that.' In our authorised 
version of the Scriptures, we constantly find thereof in places 
where a modern writer would employ its ; as ^ the candle- 
stick and the branches thereof^ Shakespeare often uses 
thereby and whereby^ to signify ^ with that,' * upon that,' 
' upon which,' ^ in reference to which,' 'on which occasion : ' as, 

Dame Quiclcly, Well, thereby hangs a tale. 

Merry Wives of Windsor^ i. 4. 

Musician. Whereby hangs a tale, sir ? 

Othello^ iii. 1. 

Hostess. Canst thou deny it ? Did not goodwife Keech, 
the butcher's wife, come in then, and call me gossip 
Quickly ? coming in to borrow a mess of vinegar ; 
telling us she had a good dish of prawns ; whereby 
thou didst desire to eat some ; whereby I told thee 
they were ill for a green wound ? 

2nd Hen. IV. ii. 1. 

422, The words therefore and wherefore mean 'for that,' 
' for which,' denoting ' for that cause,' ' for which reason.' 
The words for (Latin pro)^ and fore (Latin prai) are some- 
times used indifferently. Mr. Wedgwood thinks they are one 
and the same word. Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ 
pp. 80, 81, quotes from a Scottish Act of Parliament 1493, 
James IV. ' Heirfoir, we, James, be the grace of Grod, King of 
Scottis, &c.,' where heirfoir signifies 'for this cause,' 'for this 
reason.' He has collected other compounds, from Scottish 
Acts of Parliament, as, heirintill, ' in this,' ' within this,' heirqf, 
heirupone, heirtofoir^ heirafter^ heiranent. 



NEGATIVE ADVEEBS. 

423. In Anglo-Saxon the common form of the negative is 
we, which precedes the verb : as. 



ADVERBS. 231 

And ic hyne ne cu^e. 
And I him ne knew. 

* And I knew him not.' — John i. 33. 

Min tima ne com. 
My time ne came. 

* Mine hour is not yet come.' — Id. i. 4. 

In Anglo-Saxon and in Early English, two negatives 
strengthen the negation, instead of destroying it as in modern 
English : so, 

Ne geseah ncefre nan man God. 
Ne saw never no man God. 
*No man hath seen God at any time.' — John i. 18. 
He never yit ne vilonye ne sayde 
In all his lyf unto no maner wight. 

Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 70. 
i.e. ^ Unto no manner of person.' 

Ther was no man nowher so vertuous, 
He was the beste begger in al his hous. 

Id. 251. 
This particle ne was commonly incorporated with 'the fol- 
lowing verb : as, 

/ not, ^ I ne wot,' * I know not' 

/ nabhe, * I ne have,' * I have not.' 
/ nolde, ' I ne wolde,' * I would not,' 
It nis, ' It ne is,' * It is not.' 

It nas, * It ne was,' * It was not.' 

But soth to say I not what men him caUe. 

Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 286. 

Nowher so besy a man as he ther nas. 
And yit he semed besier than he was. 

Ibid. 323. 

424. Our usual negative not is a compound word, allied to 
naught, nought, and derived from the Anglo-Saxon naht, nauht, 
noht, which is compounded of the negative ne and aht, * aught,' 
* anything.' Compare the forms nawht, na-wiht, na-wuht, 
derived from na, * not,' and wiht, ' anything.' 

The negative not when used with the infinitive always pre- 
cedes it ; with other forms of the verb, it either follows the 
verb, or stands between the principal verb and the auxiliary. 
Grant me, O God, thy voice to know, 

And not to be afraid. Hemans. 



232 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 

He blenches not^ he blenches not, 

Scott, Ivanhoe, 
I will not sing. 

1st Hen. IV. iii. 1. 

The use of the double negative, with a negative force, was 
common, down to a late period of our literature : so, 
I never was, nor never will be, false. 

Hich. III. iv. 4. 
The man that hath no music in himself, 
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. 

Merchant of Venice, v. i. 
This England never did, nor never shall 
Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror. 

King John, v. 7. 

425. Nay (nae), and no, 

A.-S. nd and no, 
Ne eora ic nd Crist. 
Ne am I no (not) Christ. 
* I am not the Christ.' — John i. 20. 

No thy Ices, * na-the-less,' * never the less/ whence in 
older English we have * natheless ' and nathless.' 

In the Scottish dialect, nae and no are constantly used for 
not : as, * This is no my ain lassie,' and * This is nae my ain 
lassie.' I suspect that in the phrase * whether or wo,' we have 
a remnant of the old language ; * It is all the same, whether 
he comes, or no,' that is, ^ whether he comes, or comes not.'' 

426. In ordinary English, nay and no are chiefly used in 
answers. As a general rule, nay is more common in provin- 
cial English, than in the language of the metropolis or the 
imiversities. 

Sir Thomas More asserts a distinction between nay and no, corre- 
sponding to a distinction between yea and yes ; and he censures Tyndal 
for not obser^dng the diiFerence in his translation of John i. 21 : * And 
thei asked him, what then, art thou Helias ? And he sayd I am not. 
Arte thou a prophet? And he aunswered, No.' According to Sir 
Thomas More, No should have been rendered Nay. But the reason 
assigned by Sir Thomas does not support his argument. He says : ' No 
aunswereth the question framed by the affirmative. As, for ensample, 
if a man should ask Tindall himself: ys an heretike mete to translate 
holy scripture into englishe ? Lo to thys question if he will aunswere 
trew englishe, he must aunswere naye and not no. But and if the 
question be asked hym thus, lo ; Is not an heretyque mete to translate 



ADVERBS. 



233 



holy scripture into Englishe ? To thys question lo if lie wil aunswere 
true englishe he must aunswere no and not nay.' 

According to these examples, the rule should have been stated thus : 
Nay answers a question framed in the affirmative : as 

Art thou a prophet ? Nay, 
No answers a question framed in the negative ; as, 
Art thou not a prophet ? No, 

See Marsh, Lectures on the English Language, xxvi. 582. 

427. No appears in composition with many words. "We 
say nO'Where and no-wkither, but not no-whence or no-when. 
No-hoiv is sometimes employed, but it is not considered 
elegant. 

For neither^ nor, see § 449. 

428. Never is compounded of ne, * not/ and ever. Never 
and ever are often confounded. Never is an adverb of time : 
as, ^ Seldom or never has an English word two full accents.' 
Ever is an adverb both of time and of degree : as, ^ Ever so 
rich,' ^ Ever so good.' Hence * charm he ever so wisely ' is 
now preferred to the older form, * charm he never so wisely.' 

We may remark that ^ seldom or never ' has the same force 
as ^ seldom if ever ; ' but * seldom or ever ' is doubtful. Atter- 
bury says : — 

We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God. 

Here it is better to say ' or never.' 
§567. 



See Angus, Randhoohy 



COMPAEISON OF ADVEEBS. 

429. Some adverbs, expressing degree or quality, admit 
degrees of comparison : as. 

Well, better, best. 

Ill, worse, worst. 

Little, les^ least. 

Long, longer, longest. 

Much, more, most. 



sooner, 



soonest, 
oftenest. 



Soon, 

Often, oftener, 

The use of the terminations -er and -est in forming the 
comparative and superlative of adverbs, was formerly much 
more common than at present : as. 

Touching things which generally are received . . . . we 



234 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

are hardliest able to bring such proof of their certainty 

as may satisfy gainsayers. — Hooker, Ecclesiastical 

Polity, V. 2. 
That he may the stronglier provide. — Hobbes, Life of 

Thucydides, 
The things highliest important to the growing age. — 

Shaftesbury, Letter to Molesworth. 
The question would not be, who loved himself and who 

not, but who loved and served himself the Tightest , and 

after the truest manner, — Id., Wit and Hummir. 

430. These forms are often found in the poets. So Shake- 
speare : 

O Melancholy ! 
Who ever yet could sound thy bottom ? find 
The ooze, to show what coast thy sluggish crare 
Might easiliest harbour in ? 

Cymbeline, ir. 2. 
where the folios have easilest. 

Thrice blessed they that master so their blood, 
To undergo such maiden pilgrimage ; 
But earthlier happy is the rose distilled, 
Than that which, wdthering on the virgin thorn, 
Grows, lives, and dies in single blessedness. 

Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 1. 

On this passage Dr. Johnson remarks : — * Thus all the copies ; 
yet earthlier is so harsh a word, and earthlier happy, for 
happier earthly, a mode of speech so unusual, that I wonder 
none of the editors have proposed earlier happy, "^ Steevens 
observes, that Pope did propose earlier. But the whole force 
of the passage consists in the contrast between * earthly happi- 
ness ' in the one state, and * heavenly bliss ' in the other. In 
this, as in many cases, Shakespeare was wiser than his editors. 
And so Milton : ♦ 

Scepter and power, thy giving, I assume, 
Aad gladlier shall resign, when in the end 
Thou shalt be all in all, and I in thee 
For ever ; and in me all whom thou lov'st. 

Paradise Lost, vi. 730-733. 

Which Eve 
Perceiving, where she sat retired in sight, 
With lowliness majestick from her seat, 



ADVERBS. 235 

And grace that won who saw to wish her stay, 
Eose, and went forth among her fruits and flowers, 
To visit how they prospered, bud and bloom, 
Her nursery ; they at her coming sprung, 
And touched by her fair tendance, gladlier grew. 

Paradise Lost, viii. 40-47. 

To overcome in battle, and subdue 
Nations, and bring home spoils, with infinite 
Man-slaughter, shall be held the highest pitch 
Of human glory, and, for glory done, 
• Of triumph to be styled great Conquerors, 
Patrons of mankind, Gods, and Sons of Gods ; 
Destroyers rightlier called, and plagues of men. 

Ibid, xi. 691-697. 

Princes, Heaven's ancient Sons, ethereal Thrones, 
Demonian spirits now, from the element 
Each of his reign allotted, rightlier called 
Powers of fire, air, water, and earth beneath ! 

Paradise Regained, ii. 121-124. 
Each act is rightliest done. 
Not when it must, but when it may be best. 

Ihid, iv. 475-476. 

Adverbs ending in -ly are now usually compared by more 
and most : as, briefly, more briefly, most briefly, 

431> — rather. The A.-S. adverb is rce6e, ra6, ralSe, ' soon,* 
* quickly ; ' comparative, rd6or, ra^nr ; superlative, 
ra^ost. 

Hence * I would rather do so,' means * I would more quickly 
do so,' * I would sooner do so.' 

He regned fifi:ene gere, and died all to rathe, — Robert de 
Brunne, 
i, e, * all too soon.' 

O dere cosin min, Dan John, she saide, 
What aileth you so rathe for to arise ? 

Chaucer, Shipmannes Tale, 

Some of our later poets use rathe as an adjective ; so 
Milton, 

Bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies. 

Lycidas, 142. 
In a note on this passage, Todd says that^ in the West of 



236 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

England there is an early species of apple called the rathe-ripe^ 
* early-ripe.' 

432. — liefer. This is a comparative from the A.-S. adjective 
leof * loved,' * beloved,' * dear.' 

God saith, As verely as I ly ve, I wilnot the death of a 
sinner but had liefer hem to be converted and lyve.^ — 
Joye, Exposicion of Daniel, 

Shakespeare uses the positive form lief: as, 

But for my single self, 
I had as lief not be, as live to be 
In awe of such a thing as I myself. 

Julius Ccesar, i. 2. 
Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, 
trippingly on the tongue ; but if you mouth it, as 
many of our players do, I had as lief the town-crier 
spoke my lines. — Hamlet, iii. 2. 

POSITION. 

433. Adverbs are placed before the adjectives or partici- 
ples which they qualify : as, * It was ver?/ good ; ' * a man 
greatly beloved.' 

So when one adverb qualifies another, the modifying adverb 
stands first : as, ' not wisely, but too well.' 

The qualifying adverb usually follows an intransitive verb : 
as, * He behaved nohly,^ * She walks gracefully. '^ When a 
transitive verb is used with a following objective, the adverb 
generally comes afi;er the objective : as, * He received them 
kindly J * He treated his friends generously' The reason is, 
that the verb and the objective should be kept as closely toge- 
ther as possible. And if, for rhetorical purposes, it is desirable 
to vary the order of the sentence, still the connection of the 
verb and the objective should not be broken. We may say, 
for example, * He kindly received them ; ' * Generously he 
treated his friends.' 

When an auxiliary verb and a participle are used, the 
adverb may come between them : as, * I have lately written to 
him,' *■ They were kindly received.' Or the adverb may 
follow the participle, or the phrase : as, ' They were received 
kindly ; ' * I have written to him lately,'* 

When two auxiliaries are employed, their connection should 
not be interrupted; the adverb should come between the 



ADYERBS. 237 

second auxiliary and the participle : as, * They have been 
badly treated ; ' or it may follow the whole plirase, as, ^ They 
have been treated hadhjJ 

434. With regard to position no adverb presents greater 
difficulties than only. There is no absolute rule to determine 
whether it should precede or follow the word which it qualifies. 
In common conversation, great latitude is allowed. When 
we say ' I only spake three words,' most people understand ^ I 
spake three words and no more ; ' though strictly the adverb 
qualifies the verb spake. Some critics would alter thus : * I 
spake only three words ; ' but even then the position of only is 
ambiguous. Others would say, * I spake three words only ' ; 
but that is rather formal, and there can be no doubt that, in 
ordinary conversation, most persons would say ^ I only spake 
three words.' 

In composition, however, greater attention is required; 
although the best writers are not always free from fault. 
Dry den says : 

Her body shaded with a slight cymarr, 
Her bosom to the view was only bare. 

Cymon and Iphigenia, 
But the poet means to say, that ' her bosom only . . . was 
bare.' 

Dr. Johnson says : 

For thoughts are only criminal, when they are first 
chosen, and then voluntarily continued. — Rambler, 
No. 8. 

As the words stand, they imply that ' thoughts are nothing 
else or nothing more than criminal,' in the case supposed ; but 
the doctor meant, ^ thoughts are criminal, only when they are 
first chosen, and then voluntarily continued.' 

So this passage : ' Think only of the past, as its remem- 
brance gives you pleasure,' should be, ^ Think of the past, only 
as its remembrance gives you pleasure.' 

435. In the following sentence the adverb only^ from its 
position, gives a turn to the meaning quite different from that 
which the author intended : 

He had suffered the woodward only to use his discretion 
in the distant woods. In the groves about his house 
he allowed no marking-iron but his own. — Gilpin, 
Forest Scenery, 



238 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

As the words stand, they imply that ^ he had suffered the 
woodward' (or guardian of the wood), and no other person 
than the woodward, to use his discretion in the distant woods.' 
But from the context it is clear that * he had suffered the 
woodward to use his discretion in the distant woods only.'' 
The following arrangement would make the sentence plain : 

It was in the distant woods only^ that he suffered the 
woodward to use his discretion. In the groves 
about his house he allowed no marking-iron but his 
own. 

436. Gibbon writes : 

The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an 
exception to this universal toleration. — Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire^ c. ii. 

On this, Mr. Harrison remarks {English Language^ p. 337), 
as the passage stands, it means that Gaul was in reality no 
exception at all ; but that it only seemed an exception, 
' whereas Mr. Gibbon means that the sanguinary religious 
rites of the Gauls, under the Druids, were not tolerated by the 
Eomans, and that the restraint imposed upon the exercise of 
those rites was the only exception to the toleration which 
the Eoman world freely enjoyed.' 

Mr. Harrison has quite mistaken the meaning. Gibbon 
intends to say that the exception was merely apparent and 
not real ; for the Romans, while abolishing human sacrifices 
and suppressing the dangerous power of the Druids, allowed 
the priests themselves, their gods, and their altars, to subsist 
in peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Paganism. 

The whole passage reads thus : 

The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an 
exception to this universal toleration. Under the 
specious pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the 
emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the dan- 
gerous power of the Druids ; but the priests them- 
selves, their gods and their altars, subsisted in 
peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Pagan- 
ism. 

437. Again Gibbon writes : 

Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure 
of the calamities of Rome. The first could be only 



ADVERBS. 239 

imputed to the just indignation of the gods; but a 
monopoly of corn, supported by the riches and power 
of the minister, was considered as the immediate 
cause of the second. — Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
man Empire^ c. iv. 

* According to this form of expression,' says Mr. Harrison, 
* the pestilence could be imputed, and nothing more than im- 
puted^ to the just indignation of the gods ; whereas Gibbon 
means to say that the pestilence could not be attributed to the 
wicked administration of Commodus, but solely and entirely 
to the just indignation of the gods ; only to the just indignation 
of the gods.' 

Here there is no doubt of the meaning. The writer intends 
to say, that the pestilence could be imputed to the just indig- 
nation of the gods, and to that alone. No one would suppose 
that only is intended to qualify the word imputed ; and where 
there is no possibility of mistake or ambiguity, we ought not 
to be too severe in our criticism. 

438. We observe the following errors in the use of not 
only : 

Addison writes, 

By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
object, but the largeness of the whole view. — 
Spectator^ No. 412. 

Dr. Blair, Rhetoric, Lecture xxi., says that the author 
intended to refer only to the ^ bulk of a single object ; ' and he 
corrects, 

I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but 
the largeness of a whole view. 

439. The adverbial phrase at least is often misplaced. Dr. 
Blair says. 

To support this weighty argument, he enters into a con- 
troversy with A. GelHus, in order to prove that 
Aristotle's Ehetoric was not published, till after 
Demosthenes had spoken at least his most con- 
siderable orations. — Rhetoric, Lecture xxvi. 
It is evident that the phrase at least is intended to qualify 
the words * most considerable ; ' and it would have been better 
to say, * had spoken the most considerable at least of his 
orations.' 



240 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

440. The inconsistent combination of adverbs should be 
carefully avoided ; for almost never it is better to say scarcely 
ever^ or very seldom. 
Dr. Blair writes : 

It produces that slow Alexandrian air, which is finely 
suited to a close, and for this reason such lines 
almost never occur together, but are used in finish- 
ing the couplet. — Rhetoric^ Lecture xxxviii. 
In the following passage we observe an unhappy combina- 
tion and accumulation of adverbs : 

How much soever the reformation of this corrupt and 
degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, 
we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of 
future times. — Tillotson, Preface to Sermon^ 49. 



Chapter XIII. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 



441. A Conjunction, from the Latin con-junctio, signifies a 
* joining together,' and the term is applied to a certain class 
of ^ connective ' words. It is agreed that a conjunction joins 
sentences together ; but whether a conjunction may be said to 
join individual icoi^ds together, is a disputed point. 

The early grammarians, says Sir John Stoddart {Universal 
Grammar^ p. 159), included what we call conjunctions and 
pre^wsitions under the general name of connective {(rvvSefT/jLog). 
Subsequent writers, however, thought it would be conve- 
nient to separate these two classes of connectives. Hence, 
they gave to that which shows the relation of word to word 
the name of preposition ; and to that which shows the relation 
of sentence to sentence the name of conjunction, 

Harris expressly says (Hermes, ii. 2), ' the conjunction con- 
nects not words, but sentences ; ' and other grammarians have 
concluded that * a preposition connects words ; a conjunction 
connects propositions,' 

Home Tooke objects, that there are cases in which the 
words, commonly called conjunctions, do not connect sentences, 
or show any relation between them : as, ' Two and two mak^ 



CONJUNCTIONS. 241 

four.' ^ John and Jane are a handsome couple.' He asks does 
two make four ? Is John a couple ? See Diversions of Furley^ 
i. 209, 210. 

442. Again, in this sentence, ^ All men are black or white,' 
we cannot say that it is compoimded of ' All men are black, or 
aU men are white.' The meaning is not that * all men are of 
one colour,' but that, ' If a man is not black, he is white ; if 
he is not white, he is black.' 

Sir John Stoddart's reply to this objection is not satisfactory. 
He contends that the conjunction varies the assertion, and 
does potentially^ if not actually^ combine different sentences. 
For example, in such a sentence as this : ^ I bought a book for 
two and sixpence,' he argues that the purchaser did employ 
two shillings in buying, and he did employ sixpence in buying. 
So that if the meaning were fully developed, it would be, ' I 
bought a book for two shillings and I bought a book for six- 
pence.' 

This is very far-fetched. Why, ^ I bought the book for 
lialf-a- crown ; ' and if we choose to call half-a-crown ' two 
and sixpence,' that does not divide one sentence into two. 

But Sir John Stoddart is not quite satisfied with his own 
theory ; for he adds : 

^ Nevertheless, if any one contend that the word and in the 
above sentences does simply and solely connect together the 
nouns, then we say it must in such cases be called a preposi- 
tion ; but this will in no degree alter its property or character 
as a conjunction, when it is really employed to connect sen- 
tences.' Universal Grammar^ p. 160. 

443. This suggestion, that under certain circumstances and 
must be called a prepositio7i, may be contrasted with Mr. Cob- 
bett's notion that with has sometimes the force of a conjunction. 
He thinks {Grammar , § 246) that when with means along 
withj together with, in company with^ it is nearly the same as 
and. Hence he would say, * He, with his brothers, are able 
to do much.' * If,' says he, ' the pronoun be used instead of 
brothers^ it will be in the objective case : '^ He, with them, are 
able to do much." But this is no impediment to the including 
of the noun (represented by theni) in the nominative. With, 
which is a preposition, takes the objective case after it; but if 
the persons, or things, represented by the words coming after 
the preposition, form part of the actors in a sentence, the 
understood nouns make part of the nominatives. " The bag. 



242 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen ; " for if we say 
'' was stolen," it is possible for us to mean that the hag only 
was stolen, " Sobriety with great industry and talent, enable 
a man to perform great deeds," and not enables ; for sobriety 
alone woiid not enable a man to do great things.' 

444. Here we observe a confusion of form and meaning. 
As a general rule, a subject-nominative in the singular must 
have a predicate- verb in the singular. Any number of nouns, 
under government of the preposition with^ cannot discharge 
the function of subject-nominatives. Even if these nouns 
represent persons, that makes no difference ; because they are 
not formally stated as nominatives. The use of the objective 
in the phrase with them, when a pronoun is substituted for the 
noun, evidently suggests a doubt to Mr. Cobbett^s mind ; but 
he has recourse to the artifice of ' understanding,' and he says 
that * the understood nouns make part of the nominatives.' 
The brothers may have been actors in the work, but to main- 
tain that * they form part of the actors in the sentence ' is quite 
wrong. He confounds the actors in a work with the subject- 
nominatives in a sentence, the meaning with the grammatical 
form. The sentence should be, * He, with his brothers, is able 
to do much.' 

' The bag with the guineas and dollars in it was stolen ' is 
equivalent to *the bag containing guineas and dollars was 
stolen.' To allege that this construction might imply that 
^ the bag only was stolen' is a piece of special pleading. 

445. Home Tooke confounds the origin of conjunctions with their 
function in a sentence ; and because all conjunctions may, as he thinks, 
be etymologically traced to other kinds of words, he denies them to 
he a separate sort of words or Part of Speech. 

First of all, he endeavours to show that if and an^ which have been 
called co7iditional conjunctions, are merely the original imperatives of 
the verbs gifan ' to give,' and annan * to grant.' Then he says that 
those words which are called conditional conjunctions are to be ac- 
counted for in all languages, in the same manner as he has accounted 
for if and an. Not, indeed, that they must all mean precisely give and 
grant ; but that they have some equivalent meaning, such as, be it, 
suppose, &c. Hence he discards all supposed mystery, not only about 
these conditionals, but about all those words called conjunctions of 
sentences. He denies them to be a separate sort of words ; and he 
contends, that the peculiar signification of each must be traced 
among other parts of speech, by the help of the particular etymology 
of each respective language. * In short,' he says, * there is not such a 
thing as a conjunction in any language, which may not, by a skilful 
herald, be traced down to its own family and origin.' — Diversions of 
Turley, pp. 109-126. 



CONJU>^CTIONS. 243 

This may or may not be the case ; but even if true, it is nothing to 
the purpose, unless we are prepared to admit the principle that Parts 
of Speech are to be arranged according to signification and not accord- 
ing to function. Sir John Stoddart allows that Home Tooke has accu- 
rately ' traced home ' some conjunctions ; while, in regard to others, he 
has been mistaken. But whether right or wrong in the particular 
instances, his general doctrine can derive no benefit from them. To 
prove that a word performs one function at one time, does not disprove 
its performing another function at another time. To which we may 
add, that the etymology of a word has nothing necessarily to do with 
its function in a sentence ; just as a man's pedigree is not absolutely 
connected with his occupation as a citizen. — See Universal Grammary 
p. 159; and compare §§ 405, 461. 

446- On the whole, there is no sufficient reason against 
the doctrine, that conjunctions may join together individual 
words ; and by admitting this principle, we gain an advantage 
in the analysis of what are termed * contracted sentences.' 
Take for example the sentence ^ He saw you and me' Now, 
if conjunctions cannot couple individual words, this sentence 
must be analysed thus : (1) He saw you, and (2) He saw me. 
Whereas, if we admit that the conjunction and couples you 
and 7?ie, we may take you and me as a compound objective 
dependent upon the verb saw. 

Nor can there be any great difficulty in distinguishing 
between conjunctions and prepositions. A preposition can 
govern nouns, but a conjunction can not. The two words 
joined by a conjunction are both affected by a common con- 
cord or government : as, ^ You and I will accompany him and 
them, A conjunction can join sentences together, which is 
never the office of a preposition. When, for instance, before 
is used to introduce a subordinate sentence, as, 'He came 
before they left,' it ceases to be a preposition and becomes a 
conjunction (or conjunctive adverb). Lastly, a preposition 
may denote various relations of time and place; while the 
relations denoted by a conjunction are chiefly three: (1) 
Addition, as and] (2) Alternation, as or\ (3) Opposition, 
as but 

447. Accordingly we divide conjunctions into three 
classes: (1) Copulative; (2) Alternative; (3) Adversative. 
These are also termed Co-ordinating Conjunctions, because 
they join together co-ordinate sentences, that is, sentences 
of equal rank. The so-called Subordinating Conjunctions 
will be considered separately. See Chapter xiv. 

H 2 



244 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

1. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

and. This is the chief of the class ; it unites sentences, 
where the meaning adds something to that which 
precedes. Home Tooke derives the word from an-adj 
which he expounds da congeriem. But this is alto- 
gether doubtful. It has been doubted whether anan 
meant * to give,' or ' to grant,' and of the syllable ad 
which he translates * congeriem^ we know nothing. 

Mr. Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English. Ety* 
mology, considers and and an the same word ; but he 
does not throw any light upon the origin. 

both . . . and. For the sake of emphasis, sometimes each co- 
ordinate sentence has a prefix. The word hoih is fre- 
quently used with the first sentence. It is originally 
ia-tiva^ ^both-two,' also written hu-tivu and hu-tu. 

Other forms are employed to join co-ordinate sen- 
tences, as * not only . . . but,' * partly . . . partly,' * first 
. . . then.' 

also and likewise are enumerated by Professor Bain among 
co-ordinating conjunctions, Grammar^ p. 64. On the 
other hand, Mr. Mason says that these words are not 
conjunctions, but demonstrative adverbs. — Grammar y 
§ 409. 

Also is A.-S. eall-swa, ' all-so ; ' and likewise is 
compounded of like and A.-S. wise, ^ way,' ' manner ; ' 
hence likewise signifies * in like manner.' Professor 
Bain mentions a play upon the word wise in this com- 
pound : a remark was made upon the son of a judge 
who had succeeded to his father's office, but not to his 
ability, that ' he was a judge also, but not like-wise J* 
— Grammar, p. 64. 

eke. This word, as a conjunction, has become nearly ob- 
solete in modern English, with the exception of a few 
colloquial phrases, or in ballad poetry : as, 

John Gilpin was a citizen 

Of credit and renown ; 
A train- band captain eke was he, 

Of famous London town. 

Cowper. 

But it is from the same root as the verb eke, * to 
increase,' or, ' to make a thing last out.' The A.-S. eac, 



CONJUNCTIONS. 245 

* also,' is similarly connected with eacan^ or ecan^ * to 
increase, add.' Compare the Latin augeOj and the 
Greek av^avio. 

See Home Tooke, Diversions of Purley^ i. 134, 171 ; 
Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ p. 163 ; 
and Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Ety- 
mology^ EKE. 



2. ALTERNATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

448. The chief word of this class is or^ which appears to 
be contracted from the A.-S. pronoun o'^er^ ^ other;' though 
the A,-S. word corresponding in signification to or is o^^e. 
In older English we find other in the sense of the modem or : 
as, 

Ful feole and fille 
Beoth yfounde, in heorte and wille 
That hadde levere a ribaudye 
Than to here of God, other of seynte Marie. 

Kyng Alisaunder, 

i. e. * Than to hear of God, or of St. Mary.' 

It is very important to distinguish between or when it is a 
true alternative, pointing out different things (Latin aut) ; 
and or, where it expresses an equivalent in other terms, and 
merely indicates a nominal difference (Latin id est, or alias). 

Thus in the phrase ^ Christ or the Messiah,' the particle 
introduces merely an alternative name, the person being the 
same. And the same occurs when we say, * A Sovereign or 
Supreme Kuler always rules in England.' But when we say, 
' A king or queen always rules in England,' the difference is 
real, indicating distinct persons. 

nor. This word is formed from the negative ne and or. 
The corresponding A.-S. word is na'^or, na^er, naw^er, 
forms used sometimes- as pronouns, and at other times 
as conjimctions. 

We must remember that in some cases, nor has, not an 
alternative, but a copulative force, equivalent to ' and not : ' as. 

My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, 
Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate 
Upon the fortune of this present year. 

Merchant of Venice, i. 1. 



246 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

449. In alternative sentences, it frequently happens that 
each clause has an introductory particle, as either ... or ; and 
so in the negative, neither . . . nor, 

either. This is one of the words variously termed an 
adjective pronoun, or a pronominal adjective (see 
§ 285). But it is also used as a conjunction. The 
A.-S. cegthery * either,* is used in a similar manner; and 
so is the pronominal form cSor, au6er» 

neither. This word is formed from the negative ne and either. 

Where these particles are used, care should be taken to 
observe the correct sequence, either . , » or, neither . . . nor. 
Of course, neither , , . or is quite wrong. Some critics say 
that 7ior should not be used, unless preceded by neither. If 
this rule is sound, and it needs verification, it must be 
restricted to the alternative use of nor. 

In poetry, or is frequently substituted for either, nor for 
neither : as. 

Or by the lazy Scheldt, or wandering Po. — Goldsmith, 

Nor Simois, 
Nor rapid Xanthus' celebrated flood. 

Addison, 

Either, or, neither, nor should be placed next the words to 
which they refer : as, * Neither he, nor his friends were present.' 
' It neither improves the understanding, nor delights the 
heart.' 

3. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

450. The principal conjunction in this class is hut, originally 
a preposition, A.-S. he-utan, hutan, ' by-out,' corresponding in 
form, and even in signification, to ' with-out.' See § 473. 

In older English, the forms bot and hut occur. Home 
Tooke attempts to set up a distinction between them, and 
derives bot from the imperative of botan, ' to boot,' that is, 
* to superadd.' See Diversions of Purley, i. 182, 306. This 
distinction is not considered tenable ; but some of Home 
Tooke' s observations are weU worth consulting. He shows 
that, in older English, but and without were indifferently used 
as prepositions and as conjunctions ; but that in course of 
time, but ceased to be recognised as a preposition ; and without 
ceased to be correctly used as a conjunction, p. 306. 

His criticism of Locke's remarks on the word but, is given 
ibid, pp. 182-205. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 247 

The adversative force of hut is emphatically marked in this 
passage : — 

Messenger, Madam, madam 

Cleopatra. Antony's dead ? — 
If thou say so, villain, thou kilVst thy mistress : 
But well and free, 

If thou so yield him, there is gold, there 
My bluest veins to kiss : a hand, that kings 
Have lipped, and trembled kissing. 

Messenger, First, madam, he's well. 

Cleopatra. Why, there's more gold. But^ sirrah, mark; 
we use 
To say the dead are well. 

Messenger, Good madam, hear me. 

Cleopatra, Well, go to, I will ; 
But there's no goodness in thy face. 

. . • • • 

Messenger, Madam, he's well. 

Cleopatra, Well said. 

Messenger, And friends with Caesar. 

Cleopatra, Thou'rt an honest man. 

Messenger, Caesar and he are greater friends than ever. 

Cleopatra, Make thee a fortune from me. 

Messenger, But yet^ madam 

Cleopatra,, I do not like hut yet^ it does alloy 
The good precedence : f^Q upon hut yet. 
But yet is as a gaoler to bring forth 
Some monstrous malefactor. 

Antony and Cleopatra^ ii. 5. 

451> Professor Bain remarks {Grammar^ p. ^^^ : — 

It is a loose employment of this forcible word, to bring it in where 
there is no exception taken, or no arrest put upon a natural inference. 
* No man taketh it from me, hut I lay it down of myself.' 

In this passage Professor Bain considers hut imnecessary. It is also 
a common mistake to use it in the sense of now^ as signifying the com- 
pletion of a case in order to draw an inference. * Men are mortal ; hut 
(for * now ') we are men ; therefore we are mortal.' 

Still, This word appears to be derived from the adjective 
stilly and is used in the sense of yet. It is even more 
emphatic than hut^ suggesting a pause to hear what 
may be said by way of exception or opposition to the 
previous statements. * Everything went against him, 
still he persisted.' 



248 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

however. This word is compounded of how (see § 460, p. 

253), and the word ever. It may be used either at the 

beginning of a sentence, or in the middle of a clause : 

as, ' However, this statement was not true ; ' or, * This 

statement, however, was not true.' 

Conjunctions of these three classes are termed Co-ordinating 

Conjunctions, because they join together co-ordinate clauses, 

or independent affirmations. For the so-called Subordinating 

or Continuative Conjunctions see Chapter XIV. 



Chapter XIV. 



WOEDS VAEIOUSLY TEEMED CONJUNCTIVE ADVEEBS, 
ADYEEBIAL CONJUNCTIONS, EELATIVE ADVEEBS, 
SUBOEDINATING CONJUNCTIONS, CONTINUATIVE CON- 
JUNCTIONS, &c. 

452. This is another case of Border Land. Just as we 
w^ere unable to draw an exact line between Adjectives and 
Pronouns, !<o there is often a difficulty in discriminating 
between Adverbs and Conjunctions. VTords which by some 
grammarians are termed Relative Adverbs or Conjunctive 
Adverbs, are termed by others Adverbial Conjunctions, Con- 
tinuative Conjunctions, or Subordinating Conjunctions. 

If we look closely, we shall find that there is some reason 
for this diversity of opinion ; because classes really have a 
tendency to run into one another. The great error consists in 
attempting to draw a hard and fast line, where the nature of 
things will not admit it. 

453. First of all, we shall endeavour to explain what is 
meant by Relative Adverbs and Continuative Conjunctions. 
Beside the simple adverbs, which contain a positive meaning 
in themselves, as well^ timly^ there are others which refer to 
some adjoining clause for a completion of their meaning, as 
when, where, &c. These are to other adverbs what the pro- 
noun is to the noun ; or rather, what the relative pronoun is 
to the demonstrative pronoun ; hence they are called relative 
adverbs. They are also called connective or conjunctive ad- 
verbs: and by some grammarians are reckoned among con- 
junctions. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC. 249 

For example, to take ivhile^ as a specimen of this class. 
* He came while . . . ' is not intelligible. The sense is sus- 
pended till some other clause is supplied : ^ He came while 
I was speaking. — See Bain, Grammar ^ pp. 39, 40. 

454. The term Continuative Conjunction appears to be 
taken from Harris's Hermes, Mr. Harris divides conjunctions 
into Connexive and Disjunctive ; and then he subdivides the 
Connexives into (1) Copulatives, and (2) Continuatives. Ac- 
cording to him, the Copulative does no more than barely 
couple sentences, and is therefore applicable to all subjects 
whose natures are not incompatible. Continuatives, on the 
contrary, by a more intimate connection, consolidate sentences 
into one continuous whole, and are therefore applicable only 
to subjects which have an essential coincidence. 

For example, it is not improper to say : 

Lysippus was a statuary, and Priscian was a grammarian. 
The sun shineth, and the sky is clear. 

But it would be absurd to say, 

Lysippus was a statuary, because Priscian was a gram- 
marian; 

though not absurd to say, 

The Sim shines, because the sky is clear. 
The reason is that, with respect to the first, the coincidence is 
merely accidental ; with respect to the last, it is essential, and 
founded in nature. — See Sir John Stoddart, Universal Gram- 
mar^ p. 161; and compare Harris, Hermes^ ii. 2. 

Obs, — These Continuative Conjunctions are otherwise termed 
Subordinative or Subordinating Conjunctions, as 
uniting subordinate or dependent clauses to the prin- 
cipal clause of a sentence. 

It wiU be found that similar difficulties affect Relative or 
Conjunctive Adverbs and Continuative Conjunctions. 

We may, indeed, distinguish by the form one class of Rela- 
tive Adverbs — namely, those which are derived from pro- 
nouns: where, whence, whither, when, how, and whT/. But 
this will not lead us very far. Many other particles, of 
various forms, are referred to the same class. 

455. We have further to consider the function of these 
words. 

What we have called the Accessory Clause in Correlative 
Sentences, is termed by Becker and his followers an Adverbial 

M 3 



250 



BULES AND CAUTIONS. 



Clause, and is supposed to qualify some verb, or other word, 
in the Principal Clause. Mr. Mason says {Grammar^ § 422): 
— * An Adverbial Clause is one which, in its relation to the 
rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adverb. It stands in 
the adverbial relation to a verb, an adjective, or another ad- 
verb. Thus, in the sentence, * He was writing a letter when I 
arrived ^^ the clause when I arrived indicates the time at which 
the action expressed by the verb was writing took place. The 
clause when I arrived is therefore in the adverbial relation to 
the verb was writing!' 

Mr. Mason considers that the Eelative or Conjunctive 
Adverbs, which introduce adverbial clauses, do double duty ; 
they not only connect the adverbial clause with the principal 
clause, but themselves qualify the verb of the clause which 
they introduce. English Grammar^ § 424. According to 
this view, in the example just given, when connects the 
adverbial clause when I arrived with the principal clause He 
was writing a letter ; and also qualifies the verb arrived in the 
clause which it introduces. 

Practically, it will be found that this view is encumbered 
with difficulties. Many of the explanations offered by Mr. 
Mason, in his examples, are exceedingly far-fetched. To my 
mind, the Correlative view is much simpler, and far safer. 
We have seen that these introductory particles are often used 
in pairs, one corresponding to the other. This is particularly 
the case in older stages of the language; and in the oldest 
forms we find two demonstrative particles, where a later stage 
exhibits a demonstrative and a relative. See § 49. 



456. We have arranged these particles j 


as they are used to 


express the various relations of Time, Place 


, &c 




1. Time 


1. 

when . . 




II. 
then. 


2. Place 


where 






there. 




whence 






thence. 




whither 






thither. 


3. Manner 


as . . . 






so. 


4. Degree (equality) 


as . . 






$0. 




the . . . 






the. 


„ inequality 


— . . 






than. 


5. Cause and Effect 


because 






therefore. 


6. Keason and Conclusion 


because 






therefore. 


7. Action (or State) and 








Eesult 


(so) . 


, 


• • 


that. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC. 251 

I. II. 

8. Purpose and End so .... . that. 

9. Condition and Con- 

sequence if then. 

10. Concession and De- 
claration though, . . . yet. 

457- The following is an alphabetical list of the leading 
words (excluding compounds), which are employed as intro- 
ductory particles. The terms assigned to them by Dr. Morell, 
Mr. Mason, and Professor Bain, respectively, are added. I 
would only remark, how unreasonable it is to expect school- 
boys to distinguish accurately between Adverbs and Conjunc- 
tions, when the learned themselves cannot agree. 

458. although. * all though.' See ' though.' Compare al- 
heity also. 
an. 

Bottom. I will aggravate my voice so, that I will roar you as 
gently as any sucking dove ; I will roar you an 't were any night- 
ingale. 

Midsummer NigMs Dream, i. 2. 

Dame Quickly. *A made a finer end, and went away, an it had 
been any Christom child. 

Henry V. ii. 3. 
Frince Henry. What manner of man, an it like your majesty ? 

/. Henry IV, ii. 4. 

Horne Tooke derives the word from an, the imperative of anan, * to 
grant ;' he compares it with if, which he takes from gif, the imperative 
of gijan * to give ;' and he thinks that if and an are words of very 
much the same meaning. — See Diversions of Purley, i. 106, 134, 153. 

Mr. Wedgwood thinks that there is no radical distinction between aji 
and and. He says, that in our older writers, it was not unusual to use 
an for and, and wnd in the sense of an or if. 

First an for and : 

He nome with hym of Engelond god knygt mony one. 

An myd grete poer and much folc thuderwarde wende anon. 

Bohert of Gloucester, p. 319. 
Secondly, and for if or an : 

Me reweth sore I am unto hire teyde, 
For and I shulde rekene every vice 
WTiich that she hath, ywis I were to nice. 

Chaucer, Squire^s "Prologue. 

We find an if, and if, or simply an, in the sense of if. 

I pray thee, Launce, an if thou seest my boy, bid hrm make 
haste. Two Gentlemen of Verona, iii. 1. 

But and if that servant shall say in his heart, &c. 

Luke xii. 45 ; compare Matth. xxiv. 48. 



252 HULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Nay, an thou dalliest, then I am thy foe. 

Ben Jonson, 
See Wedgwood, Dictionary/ of English Etymology : an. 
The derivation is doubtful. Mr. Wedgwood thinks that both sense 
and form might well be taken from the English even^ in the sense of 
' continuous,' ' unbroken,' * level.' 

I have sometimes thought, that the original idiom may have exhibited 
two co-ordinate forms ; something like this : 

And thou dalliest, and I am thy foe. 
But this is a mere conjecture. Our wisest course is to reserve a knotty 
point like this for future investigation. 

459. after. The same word as the preposition after, — See 
§ 472. In older English the usual form of the Con- 
nective was after that ; as, ' after that I was turned, I 
repented.' — Jeremiah xxxi. 19. 
Termed : 

Continuative Conj unction . — Morell. 

Usually called a Conjunction ; better an Adverb. — 
Mason. 

Kelative Adverb, or Subordinating Conjunction. — 
Bain, 

as. Home Tooke thinks that as is the same as the German 
65, meaning it, that, or which. Sir John Stoddart 
approves of this etymology. Mr. Wedgwood, from a 
comparison of the German dialects, infers that as is a 
contraction from all-so, A.-S. eallswa, German also^ 
als, as. Dr. Bosworth, in his Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 
gives swa an 'adverb' so, thus; and swa a ' conjunc- 
tion ' as J so as, as if. In Anglo-Saxon we constantly 
find swa , , . swa used as correlatives, swa hit is swa 
thu segstj * so it is as thou sayest.' I have sometimes 
been tempted to think that as and so are both derived 
from swa. 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 

Conjunctive or Connective Adverb, in some cases; 
Subordinative Conjunction, in other cases. — Mason. 

Relative or Conjunctive Adverb ; or Subordinating 
Conjunction. — Bain. 

because, * by cause.' This word is not confined to sentences 
denoting Cause and Effect ; but is used to signify ' by 
reason,' in sentences expressing the connection of Rea- 
son and Conclusion. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC. 253 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Usually called a Conjunction ; better an Adverb. — 
Mason, 

Eelative Adverb orSubordinating Conjunction. — Bain. 

lefore. The same word as the preposition before. See § 481. 

In older English,' the usual form of the Connective 

was before that : as, * Before that certain came from 

James, he did eat with the Gentiles.'^ — Oalatians ii. 2. 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Usually called a Conjunction; better an Adverb. — 
Mason. 

Eelative Adverb orSubordinating Conjunction. — Bain. 

460. for. The same word as the preposition /or. See § 474. 
In older English, a common form of the connective is for 
that: as, 

I doubt not but great troops would be ready to run ; yet 
for that the worst men are most ready to remove, I 
would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men. — 
Spenser, State of Ireland. 
We also find the forms /or as much as and /or why : 

For as much as the thirst is intolerable, the patient may 
be indulged the free use of spaw water. — Arbuthnot, 
On Diet. 
Solyman had three himdred field-pieces, that a camel 
might well carry one of them, being taken from the 
carriage ; for why Solyman purposing to di'aw the 
emperor unto battle, had brought no greater pieces of 
battery with him. — KnoUes, History of the Turks. 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason. 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 
how. A.-S. hu, originally an Interrogative Adverb, ' how ? ' 

' in what manner ? ' 
It is frequently used to introduce indirect questions : as, 
* they asked, how he was.' 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Relative Adverb. — Mason. 



254 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

461. {/I This word plays a very important part in Home 
Tooke's argument about the origin of conjunctions. He 
contends that many of them were originally the impera- 
tive mood of verbs, and that ^/was gif, *give/ 'grant:' as, 

Forgiff me, Virgil, gif I thee offend. 

Douglas, Preface^ p. 11. 

He shows that he^ set, and many other verbs, are similarly 
used. See the whole argument, Diversions of Purley, i. 103, 
134, 149. 

To the passages there quoted, we may add the following : — 

Petruchio, I will attend her here, 

And woo her with some spirit when she comes. 
Say that she rail ; why then I'll tell her plain 
She sings as sweetly as a nightingale : 
Say that she frown ; I'll say she looks as clear 
As morning roses newly washed with dew : 
Say she be mute, and will not speak a word ; 
Then I'll commend her volubility, 
And say she uttereth piercing eloquence : 
If she do bid me pack, I'll give her thanks 
As though she bid me stay by her a week ; 
If she deny to wed, I'U crave the day 
When I shall ask the banns, and when be married. 

Taming of the Shrew, ii. 1. 

Sir John Stoddart says that the etymology deriving 2/ from 
gif the imperative of gif an * to give,' was proposed by Skinner 
and has never been disputed. * Mr. Tooke therefore is right 
so far as he follows Skinner, who first showed the connection 
between if and give ; but he is wrong when, trusting to his own 
theory, he says, *' Our corrupted ej^ has always the signification 
of the English imperative give and no other, ^^ In short he is 
right where he is not original, and original only where he is 
not right.' 

Some modern grammarians reject Home Tooke's etymology 
altogether, because they cannot find traces of the initial g in 
the cognate languages. Mr. Garnett says, that a comparison 
of the cognate languages proves that if is neither an impera- 
tive of give nor of any other verb ; and quotes with approval 
the remark of Dr. Jamieson, in his Scottish Dictionary, that 
neither the Gothic jahai, the Alemannic ihu, oh, oha, nor the 
Icelandic if or ef can be formed from the verbs denoting to 
give in those languages. See Garnett, Philological Essays, 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC, 255 

p. 24. Mr. Wedgwood compares the Gothic iha^ * whether ; ' Old 
High German ihu^ oh, * if/ * whether ; ' Dutch of, oft, * if,' 

* whether,' * or ; ' German oh, * whether ; ' Old Norse ef * if,' 
efa, if a, ' to doubt.' He appears to think that the notion of 

* doubt ' lies at the root of the word. But the argument from 
analogy is not absolutely decisive. It is possible, that of all 
the cognate languages, EngHsh alone exhibits this derivative. 
There is a fair amount of probability in favour of this ety- 
mology. 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — Morell. 
Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason, 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 

462. lest The A.-S. adverb Ices, *less,' is used with the 
particles the and thy in the sense of lest : as, 

the Ises lest 

the laes the . . . . „ 

thy Ises ...... 

thy lees the . . . . „ 

In English lest is generally used in the sense of that not. 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — Morell, 
Subordinative Conj unction. — Mason, 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 

463. since. In Anglo-Saxon we find the adjective st(S, * late,' 
and an adverb of the same form, * lately.' We also 
find si^^an, * afterwards,' ' after that,' ^ then,' * since,' 
'farther.' In Old English we meet with the forms 
sith,' sithen, sithence, from which since appears to be 
derived. 

And he axide his fadir how long is it sithe this hath falle 

to him ? — ^Wiclif, Mark ix. 
For sithen the fadris dieden. — 2 Feter iii. 

From signifying consequence in time, since is transferred to 
consequence in reasoning and causation : as, 
O mighty God, if that it be thy will. 
Sin thou art righteous judge, how may it be, &c. 

Chaucer, Jtfa/i of Lawe's Tale, 

See Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 



256 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Sifice : expressing a reason, Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason, 

Adverbial clauses relating to Time begin either with the rela- 
tive adverbs which denote time, or with the so-called conjunctions, 
before, after, since, &c. These words have no adverbial relation 
to any word in the clause which they introduce. — Mason, § 424. 

The words before, si?ice, after, until, are usually set down as con- 
junctions ; but they are in reality prepositions. The construction 
really consists of a preposition followed by a substantive clause. 
After [that] I arrived is tantamount to after my arrival. — Id. § 289. 
[This remark is applicable to before and after ; but there is no 
evidence to show that since was originally a preposition.] 

Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain. 

so, A.-S. swa, ^ so/ * thus.' 

Termed : 

Adverb. — Mason, §§ 433, 435. 

so, *by that,' Ho that measure.' Adverb of Com- 
parison. — Bain, p. 43. 

so, ^ therefore.' Co-ordinating Conjunction (Illative). 
Id. p. 67. 

464. than. Etymologically than and then are equally de- 
rived from A.-S. thonne or thcenne. In older English 
we constantly find then for than. In the following 
passages the particles are employed in significations 
precisely the reverse of our present usage : — 
Than hadde the douke ich understond, 
A chief steward of aUe his lond. 

Amis and Amiloun, 
Hire swyre is whittore then the swon. 

Ballad on Alisoun, 

i.e. ^ Then had the duke, &c.' * Her neck is whiter than the swan.' 
Termed : 

Continuative Conj unction. — M or ell, 

* Than is commonly set down as a conjunction. This 
is a mistake. It is a conjunctive adverb.' — Mason, § 
267, note ; compare the examples discussed, Mason, §§ 
545-571. 

Eelative or Conjunctive Adverb. — Bain, 
that. The same word as the pronoun that. Home Tooke 
discourses largely on this word. He endeavours to 
show that ' the word that, call it as you please, either 
Article or Pronoun or Conjunction, retains always one 
and the same signification.' — See Diversions of Parley, 
i. 81, 135, 256; ii. 61, 514, 555. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC. 257 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — Morell. 

Conjunctive or Connective Adverb, in some cases ; 
Subordinative Conjunction, in other cases. — Mason, 

Subordinating Conj unction . — JBai7i. 

465. therefore. * for that,' * for that cause,' ' for that 
reason.' 

Termed : 

Conjunctive Adverb, or Illative Adverb. — Morell. 

' Such words as therefore^ consequently j &c., are not 
conjunctions, but demonstrative adverbs.' — Mason, § 
408; compare § 292 and §§ 2^Q, 285. 

Adverb, denoting Cause and Effect. — Bain, p. 45. 

Co-ordinating Conjunction of the Illative Class, ex- 
pressing effect or consequence. — Id, p. 67. 

though, A.-S. theah ; Old English thah : 

Eichard, thah thou be ever trichard, 
Tricchen shalt thou never mo. 

Song on Richard of Cornwall, 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason. 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 

thus. A.-S. thus, ' thus,' * so.' Compare A.-S. thces, ' of this, 
* for this,' ' thus,' probably from thces, the genitive of 
the pronoun thcet. 

Termed : 

Adverb. — Morell, 

Co-ordinating Conjunction of the lUative Class.— 
Bain, 

466- unless. Skinner suggests two derivations of this word : 

(1) one-less, that is, ' one being taken away ;' or rather, 

(2) from onlesan, * to dismiss,' ^ set free,' as though it 
were Hoc dimisso. Home Tooke accepts the latter 
derivation, and sees another proof in favour of his 
theory that conjunctions are often formed from the 
imperative mood of verbs ; here from onles, ' dismiss.' 

He quotes several passages to prove that the word 
was written onlesse and onles : as, 

It was not possible for them to make whole 



258 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Christes cote without seme, onlesse certeyn 
great men were brought out of the way. — 
Trial of Sir John Oldcastle, anno 1413. 

This peticion cannot take effect onles man be made 
like an aungel. — Lupset, Treatise of Charitie^ 
p. 66. 

We have the change of on to un in un-to for on-tOy 
un-til for on-tilL 

Less is the comparative adjective ; and in form, 
on-less may be compared with on high; with aloud^ 
that is * on-loudj and below, that is * by-low,' 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason, 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 

until. The same word as the preposition until, that is, 
on-till. 

Termed ; 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Subordinative Conjunction.— ilfason. 
Subordinating Conjunction. — Bain, 

467. when, A.-S. hwcenne, hwenne, hwonne 'when,* ^at 

what time.* 
Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 

Conjunctive, Connective, or Relative Adverb.— J/ason. 

Relative or Conjunctive Adverb ; or Subordinating 
Conj imction. The Relative- Adverbs introducing clauses 
of Time, may be called Subordinating Conjunctions of 
Time : * when,' * while,* * as,' ' imtil,' *ere,* * before,* 
* after.* — Bain, p. 72. 

where, whither, whence, 
where, A.-S. hwcer, ' at what place.' 
whither, A.-S. hwceder, ' to what place.* 
ivhence, A.-S. hwanan, hwanon. — Old English whannes, 
whennes, ' from what place? * 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunctions. — MorelL 

Conjunctive, Connective, or Relative Adverbs. — 

Mason. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS, ETC. 259 

Eelative or Conjunctive Adverbs. — Bain, 
wherefore, *for which,' *for which cause/ *for which 
reason.' 

Termed : 

Conjunctive Adverb of the Illative Class. — MorelL 
Demonstrative Adverb (see therefore). — Mason, 
Adverb denoting Cause and Effect. — Bain, p. 45, 
Co-ordinating Conjunction of the Illative Class. — 

Id. p. 67. 

whether, A.-S. hwce^re, called by Dr. Bosworth a Con- 
junctive Adverb ; derived Irom the pronoun hwc^er 
< whether ? ' * which of two ? ' 

Termed : 

Subordinative Conjunction. — Mason, 
Subordinating Conj unction. — Bain. 

while. This word is derived from the A.-S. noun hwil 
hwile, ' a while, * time,' ' duration.' In Anglo-Saxon 
we find the phrase tha hwile, * the while,' and tha 
hwile the, * the while that.' — Matth, v, 25. 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — MorelL 
Conjunctive or Connective Adverb. — Mason. 
Eelative or Conjunctive Adverb ; or Subordinating 

Conjunction. — Bain. 

why. A.-S. hwi, *why,' * wherefore,' * for what cause,' 
* for what reason.' 

According to Dr. Bosworth, it is the ablative 
case of the interrogative pronoun hwa, hwcet^ 
*who?' *what?' 

Termed : 

Conjunctive or Connective Adverb. — Mason. 
Relative or Conjunctive Adverb. — Bain. 

4€8> yet A.-S. gyt. Home Tooke would derive this 
word from getan or gytan, * to get ; ' but this is doubtfril. 
Sir John Stoddart calls the word an Adverb, but 
remarks, * where yet is used for " also," " moreover," or 
"nevertheless," it is properly to be considered as a 
Conjunction ; but the distinction between a Conjunc- 
tion and a Ilelative Adverb is not always easy to be 
drawn.' — Universal Grammar, p. 87. 



260 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Termed : 

Continuative Conjunction. — Morell, p. 90. 

Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverb of the Adver- 
sative Class. — Id, p. 98. 

Co-ordinating Conjunction of the Arrestive Class. — 
Bain, p. 66. 



Chapter XV. 
PEEPOSITIONS. 



469. Prepositions were originally, and for a long time, 
classed with conjunctions ; and when first separated from them, 
were only distinguished by the name of Prepositive Con- 
junctions. 

Some of the Greek grammarians, considering that preposi- 
tions connect words, as conjunctions connect sentences, ranked 
both the preposition and the conjunction under the common 
head of connective {avvdeafiog) ; and the Stoics called the 
preposition the ^ preposed connective ' (^crvpBecr/jiog TrpoderiKoc-), 

In the Greek and Latin languages, the words thus distin- 
guished were most commonly placed immediately before the 
substantives which they governed ; and this accidental circum- 
stance was unfortunately selected by some grammarians to 
give name to the pre-position. 

If this was their notion, the view was inaccurate ; for even 
in Latin, tenus was always placed after the noun which it 
governed. So Plautus has rnederga for erg a me ; and cmn 
occupies a similar position in the words mecum^ tecum, nohis- 
cum, vobiscum. 

To meet these variations, some grammarians were not 
ashamed to make a class of postpositive prepositions, which is 
a manifest contradiction of terms ; for the same word cannot 
be at once * after-placed ' and ^ fore-placed.' 

There is, however, one aspect of the case, which may 
account for the origin of the term. In composition with verbs, 
in Greek and Latin, the preposition generally precedes the 
verb, and forms one word with it ; whereas in English (and 
this we shall find to be a very important fact), the preposition 
usually follows the verb, and is written separately. 

470. A preposition is a word which is used : 

1. To express the relation in which one substantive stands 



PREPOSITIONS. 261 

to another : as, ^ The middle of the street,' ^ The hat on 
the table,' ^the crumbs under the table.' 

2. To connect a substantive with a verb : as, ^ He went 
through the city,' ^ They passed under the bridge.' 

3. To connect a substantive with an adjective : as, ' He 
is ready ybr anything.' 

4. In composition with verbs ; most commonly after the 
verb : as, ^ carry o/",' ' run through,' * take out.' In some 
cases, however, the preposition is prefixed, as ^ over- 
throw,' * under-go.' It is curious to observe, that to 
' set up ' is to ' establish ; ' but to * upset ' is to ^ over- 
turn ; ' and to ' take up ' a cause is to ^ imdertake ' it. 

Certain prepositions correspond to the case-endings of nouns 
•in Greek and Latin. Thus of answers to the genitive case; 
to and for to the dative ; from^ hy^ and with to the ablative. 

As English is a mixed language, we shall find it necessary 
to consider the EngHsh prepositions, strictly so called, and the 
Latin prepositions. The necessity of this will fiilly appear 
when we discuss the subject of Composition. 

471. The simple original prepositions in English are these : 
a, at^ but, by, for, fore, from, in, on, of, over, out, till, to, 
through, up, with. 

Doivn and since are employed as prepositions. 

472. a. The word a appears to be a remnant of the Anglo- 
Saxon preposition an, ' in,' ' on.' It is used before the 
gerund (or infinitive) in -ing : as, * a-coming,' ^ a-going,' 
' a-walking,' * a-shooting; ' and before nouns, as ^a-bed,' 
*a-board,' ^a-shore,' ^a-foot.' Our sailors have pre- 
served many specimens of this, and of other old English 
forms. 

Dr. Wallis supposes a to be tiie preposition at. Dr. Lowth rather 
thinks it is the preposition on. For at has relation chiefly to place ; 
whereas 07i has a more general relation, and may be applied to action, 
as well as to place : ' I was on coming, on going, &c.' So, likewise, the 
phrases above-mentioned, ' a-bed,' &c., exactly answer to ' on bed,' * on 
board,' * on foot.' Dr. Bentley plainly supposed a to be the same with 
on, as appears from the following passage : 

He would have a learned University to make barbarisms a 
purpose. — Dissertation on PhalaHs, p. 223, 

See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 95. • 

at, A.-S. cet. 
after. A.-S. cefter. 



262 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

The root is af\ Gothic afar^ ^ after/ * behind : ' A.-S. 
C2ft^ ceftan^ cefter. According to Grimm, the final tar is 
the comparative termination, and the root af is the 
equivalent of the Greek oitto, Latin ah, 
473. hut. This is a true preposition, and is originally he-out^ 

* by-out ; ' A.-S. he-utan, hutan^ * without,' ^ except,' 

* besides.' It is curious that hut (be -out) has almost 
lost its power as a preposition, and remains in force as 
a conjunction ; while with-out is used as a preposition, 
and not, in modern English, as a conjimction. 

In the Scottish dialect we find hen, from A.-S. hinnan, ' within/ the 
precise correlative of but, ' without; ' ^but and ben,* * without (the house) 
and within.' Then the terms ' but and ben * are applied to the outer 
and inner rooms of a house consisting of two apartments. See Wedg- 
wood, Dictionary of English Etymology. 

Home Tooke quotes several passages from Gawin Douglas, where 
the word is used as a preposition. He tries to distinguish between 
hut, 'be out,' and bot, ' moreover,' *to boot;' but the distinction is now 
considered untenable. Among the passages quoted from Gawin 
Douglas we read, 

Bot thy werke shall endure in laude and glorie, 
But spot or fait condigne eterne memorie. 

Preface to Translation of Virgil, p. 3. 
i.e. * without spot or fault.' 

Bot sen that Virgil standis hut compare. 

Prologue to Booke IX, p. 272. 
i.e. * without comparison.' 

We add a passage from Dnnbar : 

For warld's wrak but welfare nought avails, 
i.e. * without welfare.' 

Although hut is no longer used as a preposition before nouns, we 
have instances of its usage with pronouns : as, * There was no one 
present but me^ ' They all went away but himJ So entirely has the 
prepositional use of but been forgotten, that many grammarians regard 
the word as a conjunction only. Hence they consider the phrases ' but 
me ' and * but him ' violations of grammar. They regard but as a con- 
junction in all cases ; and they condemn such sentences as these : 

There was no one present but me. 

They all went away but him. 
They correct thus : 

There was no one present but I. 

They all went away but he. 
i.e. ' but I [was present],' * but he [went not].* See § 193. Compare 
§550. 

hy, A.-S. he^ hi, hig, ' near,' ' beside.' 
down. See adown, § 416. 



PREPOSITIONS. 263 

474. for, A.'S.for, ' on account of/ * because of.' 
fore. A.S.foran, * before.' 

Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology^ classes for and 
fore together. He compares the Gothic faur^ faura^ and the Old Norse 
fyrir, ' before,' * fore, ' for,' with the G-erman vor, * for,' and/i^r, ' for.' He 
thinks the radical meaning in both cases is * in front of.' Like the Latin 
]pr(B and pro^ the particles/or and fore may be connected etymologically ; 
indeed, they may originally have been the same word. But their 
difference in usage must be observed; and, in composition, both must 
be carefully distinguished from the inseparable prefix /or, as in for- 
give, for-get, for-loxn, 

from, A.-S./m??2. 



475. in 

on. 



> A.-S. on, in, an. 



In English the preposition in is used much more widely than in 
Anglo-Saxon. I have remarked that the people of Cork retain many 
old uses of the form on, as, * He lives on the South Mall,' * I saw that 
report on the " Constitution" (newspaper).' So in Italian, ' Si legge sui 
giornali.' 

476. of. A.-S. of, ^ of,' * from,' ' out of,' ^ concerning.* 

Of is used to denote what is called the genitive case in Greek and 
Latin. It expresses a variety of relations. 

(1) Sometimes it has a partitive meaning, that is, it denotes the 
relation of a part or parts to the whole, as ' the wing of an eagle,' ' the 
walls of the town.' 

(2) Sometimes it is used in connection with the properties or qualities 
of an object: as, 'the length of the room,' 'the strength of a lion,' * the 
sweetness of honey,' * the height of the mountain.' 

(3) Sometimes it has an objective force: as, * the love o/ our neigh- 
bour,' meaning, * love towards our neighbour.' 

Obs. — There may be an ambiguity in the use of this preposition. 
For example, * the love of God ' may signify either 
* the love exhibited by God towards man,' or ' the love 
felt by man towards God.' The former may be other- 
wise rendered ' God's love,' but not the latter. 

(4) Of has sometimes an adjective meaning: as, * a crown o/ gold,' 
for ' a golden crown ;' * an act o/' grace,' for ' a gracious act.' 

(5) Of is sometimes used to connect nouns in apposition : as, * the 
city of London,' ' the city of Rome (urbs Boma). See § 143 ; and 
compare Bain, English Grammar^ p. 48. 

This preposition is sometimes contracted to o' : as, * one o'clock,' for 
* one of the clock.' 

cnjer. A.-S. ofer, ' over,' ' above,' * upon,' * beside,' * beyond.' 

Dutch, over. German, iXher. 
out, A.-S. ut, ute, * out,' * without.' 

This preposition is constantly used in composition : as. 



264 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

' turn out,' * send out.' But it is not found alone be- 
fore nouns ; though ' out of and * out from ' are usual. 

477- since. 

In Anglo-Saxon we find the adjective si^, * late/ and an adverb of 
the same form, ' lately.' We also find si6^an ' afterwards,' ' after that,' 

* then,' * since,' ' further.' In Old English we meet with the forms sith^ 
sithen, sin (Scottish syne), sithence ; and from the last our English since 
appears to have come. The old forms were never used as prepositions ; 
but the English since, though commonly used as a conjunction, has a 
true prepositional force in such sentences as these : * I have not seen 
him since Tuesday,' * I have not heard of them since last Christmas.' 
See § 463. 

through, A.-S. thurh^ ^ through,' ^ by.' 

478. till. A.-S. til 

The English till is not used with words denoting motion to a place ; 
we cannot say, with the Scots, ' he's ganging till Montrose.' Its use 
in English is chiefly confined to relations of time. Until appears to be 
compounded of ' on-till,' and used to be written * untill.' 

' Dr. Grrimm remarks that the English until, *' donee," " usque," 
though Old English (and not Anglo-Saxon, which uses o^), appears to 
be a real Danish form.' — Bosworth, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. 

to. A,-S. to, ^ to,' * towards,' ' for.' 
under. A.-S. under ; German unter, 
up. A.-S. up ; German auf. 
with. A.-S. wi^. 

The Anglo-Saxon wi^ has several meanings: (1) ' against,' * oppo- 
site;' (2) 'near,' * about,' 'by,' 'before;' (3) * towards,' ' with,' ' for,' 

* through.' 

The usual signification in English is * together with,' denoting com- 
panionship : as, 

Shylock. I will buy with you, sell luitk you, talk with you, walk 
with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink 
with you, nor pray with you. 

Merchant of Venice, i. 3. 

It is also employed to denote agency or instrumentality : as, * fed 
with the same food,' ' hurt with the same weapons.' More commonly 
by is used to denote agency, with to express instrumentality : as, * the 
field was dug by the labourer, with his spade.' 

Other prepositions are formed by combining two simple 
prepositions together; as in-to, un-to (i.e. on-to), un-til (i.e. 
on-till), up-on, with-in, with-out, through-out, out of, out from. 

479. Some prepositions exhibit a derivative form, espe- 
cially those which are made by help of the prefixes a (* on,' 

* in,') and be (*by'). These are foimd in composition with 



PKEPOSITIONS. 265 

prepositions, nouns, and even adjectives, something like our 
phrases ^ in vain,* ^ in secret.' 

We have : a-haft^ a-bout, a-hove, a-gainsf, a-long, a-mid, 
a^mong, a-round, a-tJiwart ; be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-neath^ 
beside, be-tween, be-twixt, be-yond, 

480. a-baft, A.-S. ceftan, be-ceftan, bceftan, * after,' * be- 
hind.' Hence on-bceftarij * abaft,' literally ' on-by-aft.' 
Every man shewid his connyng tofore the ship and bafU 

Chaucer, 
a-bout A.-S. abutan. From A.-S. utan we find be-utan 
(^by-out') and butan ; on-butan (* on-by-out ') and 
a-butan, 
above. A.-S, a-bufan. From A.-S. nfan wc find be-ufan 
(' by-up '), bufan, and a-bufan, 

against. From a-gain, Old English a-gen. From A.-S. 
simpler forms gean and gegen, * opposite,' we find on- 
gean, on-gegen. In modern English a-gain has lost its 
prepositional force, remaining in use as an adverb. 

a-long. There are two words of this form : 

(1) a-long, A.-S. and-lang, German, ent-langen. Here 

lang is originally an adjective agreeing with the noun, 
which is governed by the preposition and, ^through;' 
as and langne dceg, * through the long day,' ^ through the 
length of the day.' The adjective has been absorbed 
by the preposition. . Compare a-mid. 

(2) a-long, fi:om A.-S. ge-lang, * owing to,' as in the phrase 

* it is along of you.' So Shakespeare, 
All this coil is long of you. 

Midsummer Nighfs Dream, iii. 2. 

a-mid. There is another instance in which an adjective has 
been absorbed, or attracted, by a preposition. A.-S. 
midd is an adjective, * middle : ' thus, 
On middre nihte, * at mid night.' 
On midne daeg, * at mid day.' 
On midre sae, * in mid sea,' * in the middle of the 

sea.' 
On middan thaere ea, * in middle the water,' * in the 
middle of the water,' * amid the water.' 
In this last sentence observe the position of the article 
ihcere between the adjective and the noun. Compare the 
remarks on *many a youth,' §§ 296-303. 

N 



266 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

a-mong. Dr. Boswortb gives the following forms of tlie 
A.-S. preposition: ge-mang^ ge-mong^ a-mang^ on-mang. 
There is a noun ge-mang, * mixture,' and a verb mengan, 
*• to mingle, mix.' It is possible that a-mong originally 
signified * in the mixed multitude;' but the word 
requires further investigation. 

a-round, * on round.' Here we have a preposition with an 
adjective; compare the phrases * in vain,' ^ in secret.' 
So Lydgate, speaking of his youthful days : 
Lik a young colt^that ran withowte brydil, 
Made my freendys ther good to spend in ydil, 

* In idle' means ' in vain,' ^ to no purpose.' The adjec- 
tive ^ round' is from the French rond, Latin roiuiidus, 
I do not think that ^ around ' is derived from A.-S. 
rand^ rond, ' rim,' ' border.' The sense would hardly 
favour that derivation ; and we may remark that the 
A.-S. preposition used in this signification was yirib, 
German um. 

a-thwart. This appears to be another case of a preposition 
and an adjective. The A.-S. adjective thweor, thweorh, 
thivir^ thwyr^ thwer, tJnvur, thwurh, signifies 'crooked,' 

* cross,' ' wicked,' ' thwart ; ' and Dr. Bosworth gives 
the phrase on thweorh sprecan * perversely speak,' 
that is, * speak athwart.' Mr. Wedgwood compares the 
Old Norse um thvert, * across,' ' athwart.' 

481. We have now to consider prepositions exhibiting the 
prefix he-^ ' by.' This prefix is the Anglo-Saxon preposition 
be, bi, big, *■ by, near to, to, at, upon, about, with.' We find 
it prefixed to a preposition, as * be-/or^ ; ' to a noun, as ' be- 
side ;' to an adjective, as ' be-Zow.' 

be-fore. A.-S. be-foran, * by-fore.' 

he-hind, A.-S. be-hindan, ' by-hind.' 

be-low, ' by-low : ' compare * on high.' 

be-neath, A.-S. be-neo"^, be-neo^an, be-ny^an^ ^by-neath ;' 
neo^an signifies ' down,' ' downwards.' 

he-side, ' by side.' 

he-tween, 'by twain,' that is ' near two.' The notion is, 
that if a thing is between two others, it is near both. 

be-twixf, A.-S. be-twuh, be-twy, be-twih, be-twyh, be-tweoh, 
be-tweohs, be-tweox, be-twux, be twuxt. In Anglo-' 



PREPOSITIONS. 267 

Saxon, li appears to have had a guttural sound; hence, 
hs are equivalent to x, 

Mr. Wedgwood says, ' The A.-S. has tiocoh, a different form of twa^ 
** two;" and thence twegcn, '' twain." From the former of these are A.-S. 
betwuh, betweoh, betweohs, bettiu ox, betwKxt, '' hj twoj' "in the middle 
of two ;" which may be compared, as to form, with amid, A.-S. amiddes, 
amidst, or with again, against. In like manner from twain is formed 
between, " in the middle of twain." 

' The lie of Man that me clepeth 
By twene us and Irlonde.' 

Robert of Gloucester, 

* The Isle of Man that man calleth 
By twain us and Ireland.' 

See Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, * between.' 

he-yond, A.-S. he-geond, he-geondan, he-iundan, ' by- 
yond,' ^ by-yonder.' Geond^ as a preposition, signifies 
^ through, over, after, beyond ; ' and as an adverb, 
*yond, yonder, thither, beyond.' 

482, The following words are used as prepositions. They 
are derived from verbs, either from the imperative mood, or 
from the form in -ing. 

From the imperative : except^ save. 

From the form in ~ing : hating^ concerning^ during, ex- 
cepting^ pending^ respecting, regarding, notwithstanding. 

It is difficult to say whether the form in -ing, here used, 
is participial or gerund ial ; or whether some of these words are 
used in one construction, others in another. We might con- 
sider during and pending to be participial, and to have arisen 
from an absolute construction : * pending the battle ' {pen^ 
dente prcelio), ^ while the battle was hanging in doubt ; ' so 
* during the fight,' that is, * while the fight lasted.' 

But this explanation would not suit ' concerning,' ^ except- 
ing,' ^regarding.' Wickliffe, who uses ^ out-take ' for except, 
employs the passive participle in an absolute construction : 
' out-taken women and little children/ that is, ' exceptecZ 
women and little children.' 

I incline to think that we have borrowed this use of the 
active participle from the Norman French. We have for ex- 
ample ' in passing,' en passant, a construction which furnishes 
grammatical difficulty both in French and Enghsh. 



k2 



268 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 



POSITION. 



483. The noun or pronoun governed generally follows the 
preposition which governs it. 

But the preposition is often separated fi'om the relative 
pronoun which it governs, and is thrown to the end of the 
clause or sentence : as, 

Horace is an author, whom I am much delighted with. 

The world is too well bred to shock authors with a 
truth, which generally their booksellers are the first 
that inform them of. — Pope, Preface to his Poems, 

* This is an idiom,' says Dr. Lowth, * which our language is 
strongly inclined to ; it prevails in common conversation, and 
suits very well with the familiar style in writing ; but the plac- 
ing of the preposition before the relative is more graceful, as 
well as more perspicuous ; and agrees much better with the 
solemn and elevated style.' — Lowth, English Grammar j p. 187. 

Lindley Murray quotes this remark word for word, and has 
the credit of having laid down a law upon the subject. But 
the old idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of a sen- 
tence was beginning to be thought inelegant in the time of 
Dry den. In his Defence of the Epilogue j he criticises some 
passages in Ben Jonson's Catiline ; and upon these lines, 
The waves, and dens of beasts, could not receive 
The bodies that those souls were frighted ^row, 

he remarks, ' The preposition in the end of a sentence : a 
common fault with him, and which I have but lately ob- 
served in my own writings.' — Dry den, Prose Works (ed. 
Malone), ii. 237. Accordingly Dryden altered this construc- 
tion in every sentence where it occurred in his Essay on 
Dramatic Poesy, The first edition of that work appeared in 
1668 ; the second in 1684. Malone has printed the second 
edition, collated verbatim with the first edition, and he adds 
the various readings at the close of the essay. Thus : ' I can- 
not think so contemptibly of the age / live in^ is exchanged 
for * the age in which I live.' * A deeper expression of belief 
than all the actor can persuade us to ' is altered, ^ can in- 
sinuate into W5.'— Dryden, Prose Works, ii. 136-142. 

484- Hallam, quoting this passage (Literary History, iii. 
556), observes, though the old form continued in use long 
after the time of Dryden, it has of late years been reckoned 



PREPOSITIONS. 269 

inelegant, and proscribed in all cases, perhaps with an un- 
necessary fastidiousness, to which I have not uniformly 
deferred ; since our language is of a Teutonic structure, and 
the rules of Latin or French grammar are not always to bind 
us.' In a note Hallam quotes an interrogatory sentence from 
Hooker : — * Shall there be a God to swear hy^ and none to 
pray ^o ? ' as an instance of the force which this arrangement, 
so eminently emphatic, sometimes gives. Hallam's view of 
the question is this : — * The form is, in my opinion, sometimes 
emphatic and spirited, though its frequent use appears 
slovenly. ... In the passive voice, I think it better than in 
the active ; nor can it always be dispensed with, unless we 
choose rather the feeble encumbering pronoun which,'' 

We must not forget that Dry den represented the classical 
school in our literature ; hence he wished to make our lan- 
guage conform to the Latin idiom. Since German studies 
have become fashionable, we have seen that the practice of 
throwing the preposition to the end of the sentence is a Ger- 
manic, and therefore presumptively an old English idiom. The 
perusal of our older authors has strengthened this impression. 
See § 256, and compare Bain, English Grammar^ p. 189. 

485. Professor Bain {English Grammar^ p. 190) quotes the 
following examples from Massinger's Grand Duke of Florence^ 
to show the usage of the Elizabethan writers : — 

For I must use the freedom / was horn with. 
In that dumb rhetoric which you make use of, 

the name of friend, 

Which you are pleased to grace me with. 

a copious theme, 

Which would, discoursed at large of make a volume. 

And so Shakespeare : 

But that the dread of something after death, 
The undiscovered country, from whose bourn 
No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; 
And makes us rather bear those ills we have, 
Than fly to others that we know not of 

Hamlet^ iii. 1. 
To have no screen between this part he played. 
And him he played it for ^ he needs will be 
Absolute Milan. Tempest^ i. 2. 

These nine in buckram that I told thee of 

1st Henry IV, ii. 4. 



270 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

486. Caution. — ^Where a relative pronoun is dependent upon 
a preposition, and the preposition is thrown to the end 
of the sentence, errors are sometimes found, and the 
nominative is often improperly used for the objective. 
In the following passages ivho ought to be whom : — 

Who servest thou under ? 

Henry V. iv. 7. 
Who do you speak to ? 

^5 you Like It, V. ii. 

I'll tell you who time ambles withal, who time 
trots withal, who time gallops withal, and ivho 
he stands still withal, — Ibid, iii. 2, 

We are still much at a loss who civil power be- 
longs to, — Locke, 

487- Some writers separate the preposition from the noun 
which it governs, in order to connect different prepositions 
with the same noun; as, 

To suppose the zodiac and the planets to be efficient of, 
and antecedent to, themselves. — Bentley, Sermon 6. 

This, adds Dr. Lowth, whether in the familiar or the solemn 
style, is always inelegant ; and should never be admitted but 
in forms of law, or in documents where accuracy of expression 
must take place of every other consideration. — See Lowth, 
English Grammar, p. 137, Note. 



ENaLISH PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION WITH VERBS. 

488. Some few of our prepositions are prefixed to verbs, 
and coalesce with them : these are fore, over, out, with, under, 
up, and the inseparable preposition for-, corresponding to the 
German ver-, 

fore. As in fore-tell (sometimes written fore-teT), fore-hode, 
fore-hnow, 

over. As in over-turn, over-whelm, and sometimes with the 
signification of ' excess,' as in over-do, over-work, 

out. With the sense pf ' surpassing,' as in out-do, out-run, 

with. Not in the sense of * along with,' but signifying 
'against,' 'away,' as in ivith-stand, with-hold,with-draw, 

under. As in under-lay, under-mtne, under-write. Some- 



PREPOSITIONS. 271 

times it bears the signification of * defect/ as in under- 
praisBj under-value. At other times we observe au 
entire modification of meaning : for example, under- 
stand does not mean * stand under/ but ' comprehend.' 
Compare the German ver-stehen. In under-go and 
under-take, the notion of * under ' is borrowed from 
* going under,' or * supporting' a burden. 
up. As in up-hnld^ up-heave, up-lift. Observe that up-set 
means * over- turn,' but ' set up' means ^ establish.' 

489. for. The particle for- may or may not be the same 
as our preposition for. At all events, it seems akin to 
the German ver^ and the Latin per-. Compare the Old 
English for-do^ * ruin,' ^ destroy,* with the German 
ver-thun, ^ use up,' * consume,' and Avith the Latin per- 
do, ' destroy.' Compare also for-sivear with the Ger- 
man ver-schworen, and the Latin per-juro. With a 
verb of good meaning, it has a contradictory effect, 
turning good into bad ; but with a verb of bad mean- 
ing, it appears to have an intensive force. 
for-do. Sometimes wvitt^w fore-do , ' ruin, weary, destroy.* Compare 

German ver-thun^ Latin per-do. 
forfeit. From the French noun forfait^ derived from for-faire^ ' do 
wrong,' ' transgress.' Hence forfeit means * to lose by mis-, 
deed;' the term being transferred from the act to the conse- 
quences. In Low Latin /or-/aire is rendered /om-/ac^^. 
for-go. Sometimes written fore-go^ ' go without.' 
for-get, * Lose hold of.' 
for-give, 'Give away.' In old time he who pardoned an injury gave 

up his claim to the wer-gild or * compensation.' 
for-saJce. Properly *put away the subject of dispute,' * renounce,' 

* deny ;' then simply ' desert.' Old English sake, ' dispute,' 

* strife.' A.-S. sacan, sacian, ' contend,' ' strive.' 

Mr. "Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology, discusses 
for- under the words ' for,' * fore,' and says : ' For, in composition, 
answers to G. ver, Goth, fair, Fr. for, and has the meaning of G. fort, 
Dan. hort, ''forth," "away;" Latin, foris, "without;" Fr. /or5, "out," 
" without." Thus/or62c? is to "bid a thing away ;" to forget, to "away- 
get," to lose from memory ; to forgo, "to go without;" to for fend, "to 
ward off." In other instances the prefix for, in the sense of out or 
utterly, implies that the action has been carried to its utmost limits : 
forwearied is " wearied out." ' 

Similarly in Piers Ploughman we read : 

I was vreiry for-wandredf 
And went me to rest© 
Under a brood bank 
By a bournes syde. 



272 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

490. But more commonly, in English, the preposition is 
placed after the verb, and separated from it. And thus several 
words may come between the verb and the preposition : as, 
' he took them all m,' ' he turned every one out.^ 

It is a very useful exercise to take an English -French Dic- 
tionary, as that of Spiers, and to look out an English verb. 
The prepositions used in composition with that verb are added, 
with French translations of the compound verbs ; and the 
exercise consists in making a list of the compounds, affixing 
to each the corresponding Latin-English derivative. The verb 
talce will furnish us with an example : 

Take away Abstract^ remove 

Take about Conduct^ convey. 

Take after Imitate, 

Take along Convey, 

Take down (1) Demolish, deject, 

(2) Degrade^ humiliate. 

Take from Subtract, 

Take in (1) Receive (with hospitality). 

(2) Deceive, 

Take off (1) Destroy. 

(2) Ridicule. 

Take on Assume. 

Take to Adopt, 

Take under Subduct. 

Take up Raise, elevate. 

Take upon Arrogate, 

Take with Convoy, escort, 

491. It is also very necessary to observe, that many intran- 
sitive verbs become transitive, when compounded with prepo- 
sitions. For example, run is intransitive ; but run through is 
transitive. 

In the following list, we mark the transitive verbs * : — 
Eun away Abscond, 

* Run away with (1) Abduct. 

(2) Imagine, 

* Run down (1) Catch, overwhelm, 

(2) Decry, depreciate. 
Run from Eschew, avoid, 

* Run through (1) Transfix, pierce. 

(2) Squander, 
Run off Escape, 

* Run up Incur (a debt). 



PREPOSITIONS. 273 



LATIN PKEPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION WITH VEEBS. 

492. The Latin element enters largely into the English 
language ; and it is absolutely necessary to have some know- 
ledge of Latin prepositions, as they appear in composition with 
verbs. For fuller information, on this part of the subject, the 
student may consult Professor Key's ia^m Grammar^ §§ 808- 
838, and §§ 1303-1397. It will be sufficient to remark here, 
that when a Latin preposition ends in a consonant, the final 
consonant is liable to change, if the verb, with which it is 
compounded, begins with a consonant. This is called assimi- 
lation^ or a * making like,' because the final consonant of the 
preposition is made like to the initial consonant of the verb. 
For example, from ad and rogo we have, not ad-rogate^ but 
ar-rogate. In like manner, we have, not ad-similation, but 
assimilation. 

To the prepositions, in the following list, we annex the 
changes to which they are liable ; for instance, we give, 
ad (ac, af, ag, alj an, ap, ar, as, at). 

This means, that the preposition ad sometimes appears in 
composition as ac, af, ag, &c., according to the initial conso- 
nant of the verb. 

Latin Prepositions. 

493. a, aJ, abs, * from,' * away.' 

a-vert ' turn from.' 

absolve ' loosen away.' 

abS'tract m * draw away.' 

Prof. Key, Latin Grammar^ § 1304, translates ab-use, * use 
up,' absorb, * suck down.' 

ad (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at,) ' to,' ' at,' * on.' 



ad'here 


* stick to.' 


aC'Cede 


* step to.' 


af-fix 


' fix on.' 


ag-glomerate 


' heap on.' 


al-locate 


* place to.' 


an-nex 


* join on.' 


ap'preciate 


* put value on,' * set price upon.' 


ar-rive 


* come to.' 


assimilate 


'liken to.' 


at-tend 


* stretch to.' 




n3 



274 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

ante, 'before.' 

ante-date * fore- date,' * date before.' 

ante-cede * go before^' 

494. circum, * round.' 

circnm-vent * come round' (i. e. deceive). 

circum-navigate * sail round.' 

circumscribe * draw a line round.' 

com (col, con, cor, co), * with,' * together,' * up.' 
com-pose * place together.' 

col-lect ' gather together,' ' gather up.' 

cor-rohorate ^ strengthen up.' 

cor-rode ' eat up.' 

co-operate * work together.' 

Obs. — This preposition is cow before consonants and co before 
vowels : con-form, consider, consist ; but co-equal, 
co-eternal. Many persons write * co-temporary ' for 
* cow-temporary ;' but Richard Bentley said that ' he 
could not co-gratulate such persons on the co-position 
of their words.' 

contra, 'against.' 

contra-diet, ' speak against,' * gain-say,' where gain- 
contains the root of a-gain, a-gainst. 

contra-vene, ' come against.' 
contro, 'against.' 

contrO'Vert, ' turn against.' 

495. de, ' down,' ' forth,' ' out,' ' at.' 

de-scend ' climb down,' ' come down.' 

de-ject ' cast down.' 
de-monstrate ' show forffh,' ' point out.' 

de-ride ' laugh at.' 

despise ' look down upon.' 
dis- {dif, di), ' in different directions,' ' apart,' ' away,' 
' from.' 

dissolve ' loosen away.' 

dis-join ' separate.' 

dis-arm ' take weapon away.' 

dif-fuse ' scatter apart.' 

dif-fer ' carry in different directions.' 

di-verge ' turn aside.' 

ex {ef, e\ ' out of,' ' forth.' 

ex-port ' carry out.' 



PREPOSITIONS. 



275 



ex'pose 
e-merge 
e-nuntiate 
e-migrate 



' set forth; 

* come forth.' 
' tell out.' 

* wander forth.' 



496. in (inij il, in, and in French derivatives em, en), ^ in,' 
* into,' ^ upon.' 

iu'volve * roll in.' 

in-duct * lead in.' 

inspire *■ breathe into.' 

il-lude * play upon.' 

iUlustrate * throw light upon.' 

im-pel * urge on.' 

im-pose * put upon.' 

im-port * carry into.' 

ir-radiate ^ shine into.' 

ir-rigate ' pour water upon.' 

em-brace * put arms round.' ^ 

en-vy ' look upon' (i.e. with an evil eye.) 
inter {intel\ * between,' * among.' 

inter-cede * pass between,' * mediate.' 

inter-cept * come between.' 

inter-change ' change among/ 

This preposition conveys the idea of opposition or obstruc- 
tion in the words inter-cept, inter-dict (* for-bid '), inter-fere. 

In French derivatives it takes the form enter, as enter -prise 
an ^ undertaking.' 

intro, * into,' * in.' 
introduce^ * lead in.' 

497- ob {oc, ofy op), ' against,' ' up,' ' upon,' ^ towards.' 



ob-ject 
obstruct 


* cast against,' ' urge against.' 

* block up.' 


oC'Cur 


* run towards.' 


of-fend 
of-fer 


' strike against.' 
* bring towards.' 


op-pose 


* put against.' 


op'press 
op'pugn 


* press upon.' 

* fight against.' 


498. per, through.' 
per-mit 
per-vade 


* let go through.' 

* pass through.' 



276 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 

Obs. — The particle per in composition has sometimes a mean- 
ing akin to that of our /or-, German ver-^ as in the 
Latin per-dOy 'for-do,' i.e. * destroy;* so too, Latin 
jper-jurOj * for-swear ;' so, perhaps, per-vertj * turn away 
from (the right)/ 

post, * after,* ' off.' 

post-date 'after-date/ * date-after.' 

post-pone * put off.' 

pne (pre), ^before.' 

pre-cede, 'go before,' not ^fore-go,' which is 

more strictly 'for-go,' ' go without.' 
pre-clude * shut out beforehand.' 

pre-dict ^ fore tell.' 

pre-fer ' put before.' 

pre-tend * stretch forward' (for the purpose of 

concealment). 
pro (por), * for,' * forth,' * before.' 

pro-ject * cast forward.' 

por-tend * fore -stretch,' * fore-token.' 

This preposition appears in French as pour^ whence we 
have pour-tray, now written por-tray, * draw forth,' * draw in 
outline ;' pur-pose of the same meaning as p'o-^^ose, * set forth' 
(as an object), * design.' 

499. re {red), ' back,' * again.' 
re-cur * run back.' 
re-ject * throw back.' 

re-move * move back,' ' take away.' 

red-eem * buy back,' * buy again.' 
retro, ' back,' * backward.' 

retro^grade * step backward.' 
se, ^ apart.' 

se-cede * go apart,' -^ withdraw.' 

se-parate * put apart.' 

500. sub (sue, suf, suy, sup, sur, sus, 5w[5]), ' under,' * up,' 
* over,' * after.' 

sub-due * bring imder.' 

sub-ject * cast under.' 

sub-mit * put under.' 

suc-ceed ^ come up,' * prosper.' 

suc-cour * run up,' ^ help.' 

suf-fix * fix under,' * put after.' 

suf-fuse * spread over.' 



PREPOSITIONS. 



277 



sug-gest 

sup'port 

sup'pose 

sur-render 

suS'pend 

sus-tain 

su{s)-spect 

super, *over,* *on.' 
super-add 
super'Scribe 
super 'Vene 

The French sur is derived 
sur-prise 
sur-vene 
sur-vey 
sur-vive 

trans (tra), * over/ ' across.' 
trans-mit 
trans-mute 
ira-duce 



* carry up.' 

* bear up.' 

* lay under,' * lay down.' 

* deliver up.' 

* hang up.' 

* hold up.' 

* look under.' 

* add on.' 

* write over.' 

* come on,' ' come in addition.' 

from super J and appears in 

* take suddenly.' 

* come in addition.' 

* oversee.' 

* live after.' 

* send over.' 

' change over.' 

* lead over,' ^ bring before the 

public,' * expose to ridicule,' 
* calumniate.' 



501. It sometimes happens, that while a verb is compounded 
with a Latin preposition, an English preposition follows the 
verb. As a general rule, the two prepositions should agree in 
meaning ; the Latin derivative should be followed by a pre- 
position corresponding to that which is used in composition : 
as 'ac^-apt to,' 'a/-fix tOy ^ di-yert fronij^ ^ ex-'pel from {or 
out of),'' 

But sometimes the meaning of the compound verb overrides 
the original force of the preposition. Take the verb differ. 
When we say ' dif-fer from,'' the agreement between dis (dif) 
* in various directions ' and from is sufficiently close. But we 
also say * dif -fer with ' where the prepositions do not agree. 
The explanation is this : ' dif-fer from ' is equivalent to * con- 
tend with ; ' and so, by extension of meaning, we say * differ 
vjith.^ In this case, the meaning of the verb ' differ ' over- 
rides the force of the prefix dif and custom prevails against 
etymology. 

502. But the misuse of prepositions is not confined to those 
which follow compound verbs. Dr. Lowth {English Grammar, 



278 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 

p. 138) has collected the following examples of improper 
usage : — 

Your character, which I or any other writer may now 

value ourselves by drawing, [ypon,'] — Swift, Letter 

on the English Tongue, 
You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving 

persons, [upon.'] — Ihid, 
Upon such occasions as fell into their cognisance, [under.] 

— Id, Contest and Dissensions^ &c,, c. iii. 
That variety of factions into which we are still engaged. 

[in,] — Ibid. c. v. 
To restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics. 

[to,] — Dryden, Preface to Aurungzebe, 
Accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch, [o/.]— 

Swift, Four Last Years of the Queen, 
[It is possible to defend this sentence, thus : * Accused the 

ministers, on account of their having betrayed the 

Dutch.'] 
Ovid, whom you accuse for luxuriancy of verse, [of] — 

Dryden, On Dramatic Poesy, 
Something like this has been reproached to Tacitus. 

— Bolingbroke, On History^ vol. i. p. 136. 
[It would be necessary to give this sentence a complete 

turn: * Tacitus has been reproached with something 

like this.'] 
He was made much on at Argos. [of] 
He is so resolved of going to the Persian court, [on,] 

— Bentley, Dissertation on Themistocles* s Epistles^ 

sect. iii. 
Neither the one nor the other shall make me swerve out 

o/the path, which I have traced to myself, [from,] — 

Bolingbroke, Letter to Wyndham, p. 242. 

If poesy can prevail w^on force, [over,] — Addison, Travels, 
p. 62. 

[We prevail upon persons, but over physical forces.] 

I do likewise dissent with the examiner. — Id, Whig 
Examiner, No, 1. 

[We * differ with ' but ' dissent /rom.'] 
Ye bhnd guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a 
camel. — Matthew xxiii. 24. 



PREPOSITIONS. 279 

[The original has divXt^ovTEg, i.e. ^straining out a gnat,' 
* taking a gnat otit of liquor by straining.'] 

It was perfectly in compliance to some persons, for whose 
opinion I have great deference, [with.'] — Swift, Pre- 
face to Temple^ s Memoirs. 

The wisest Princes need not think it any diminution to 
their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to 
rely upon counsel, [of] [from,] — Bacon, Essay xx. 

503. In the use of prepositions after verbs, much depends 
on usage : 

We * go heyondy and * rise above,'' 

We * except from censure,' and state ^exceptions to b, 

course.' 
We * inquire of a person,' and * at a place.' 
We are * dependent on ' and * independent o/.' 
See Angus, Handbook of the English Tongue, § 590, 
where the student will find a list of verbs followed by 
the prepositions commonly used after them. 



280 



FiXATVfPIiES. 



EXAMPLES. 

' The ordering of exercises is matter of great consequence ' 
to hurt or help; for, as is well observed by Cicero, 
men in exercising their faculties, if they be not well 
advised, do exercise their faults and get ill habits as 
Avell as good,' — Bacon, 
In all studies, much depends upon judicious exercise ; for, 
however useful theory may be in its proper place, the main 
thing is practice. 

In grammar, the chief end is accuracy ; and slovenly exer- 
cises do more harm than good. Scrupulous attention should 
be paid to the handwriting, and the spelling. Boys are apt 
to despise these things as trifles ; but they have to learn, that 
attention to trifles often makes all the difference between a 
man who succeeds in life, and a man who fails. 

In the present day, there is too much hurry ; and even boys 
are ready to account for their negligence by saying ' that they 
had not time.' This is an idle excuse. No portion of their 
time can be so well spent as that which is occupied in acquir- 
ing habits of neatness, and accuracy. 

In grammatical analysis, two methods may be adopted. 
The first is the method of construing; that is, to begin by 
selecting the principal words in a sentence, as, the * subject- 
nominative ' and the * predicate-verb ; ' then to subjoin the 
qualifications of each ; and then, to add the dependent words 
of the sentence. For example : 

Him the Almighty Power 
Hurled flaming. 
Subject-nominative .... Power 

Predicate-verb hurled 

Qualifications of the ^ , . . the 

Subject-nominative j . . . Almighty 
Objective ...... him 

Qualification of the Objective . . flaming. 
The second method is to take the words as they stand, and 
to explain each in its order : as, 

Him .... Objective. 

the ..... Qualification of the Sub- 
ject-nominative * Power. ^ 



EXAMPLES. 281 

Almighty . • • Qualification of the Sub- 

ject-nominative * Power,'' 
Power . . . • Subject-nominative, 
hurled .... Predicate-verb, 
flaming . . . . Qualification of the Ob- 
jective ^him,^ 

In oral instruction both methods may be employed. But in 
written analysis, I incline to the second method. For this 
reason, that the mind is less liable to be distracted by moving 
from one part of the sentence to another ; and there is less 
danger of omitting any word. In this way, we begin at the 
beginning, and go on steadily to the end. However, on this 
point, there may be difference of opinion ; some may prefer 
the one way, and some the other. 

For a while, I hesitated whether to use abbreviations, as, 
mbj. nom,, pred, verb, or to discard them. At first, there is a 
temptation to save time and trouble. But in looking over an 
exercise, the analysis written in full is much more pleasing to 
the eye, than one in which abbreviations are used. And as 
there is an artistic pleasure in beholding a well- written exer- 
cise, I conclude that it is better to discard abbreviations. 

In selecting examples, I have introduced several of those 
given by Dr. Morell and Mr. Mason, in order to exhibit the 
difference of the systems. The reader may compare the 
analysis here proposed with that of the writers mentioned : 
Morell, Grrammar of the English Language ^ pp. 80-103 ; 
Mason, English Grammar, pp. 122-143. 



I. EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES. 

1. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

The Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- 

native ' curfew.' 

curfew Noun, Subject-nominative. 

tolls Predicate-verb. 

the Definite article, qualifying the Objective 

' knell.' 

knell Noun, Objective. 

of parting Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Objective 
day. * knell : consisting of a preposition * of,' a 

participle * parting,' a noun ^ day.' 



282 



EXAMPLES. 



2. The sun from the western horizon extended his 

golden wand o'er the landscape. 
The Definite article^ qualifying the subject-nomi- 

native ' sun.' 
sun Noun^ Subject-nominative, 

from the Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- 

western verb * extended,' and denoting the place 

horizon whence, 

extended Predicate-verb, 

his Prondun possessive (or in the possessive case\ 

qualifying the Objective * wand.' 
golden Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ' wand.' 

wand Noun J Objective. 

o'er the land- Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- 
scape, verb * extended,' and denoting the place 
where. 

Obs, — The phrase • of parting day ' is called a prepositional 
phrase ; whereas ' from the western horizon ' and ' o'er 
the landscape ' are termed adverbial phrases. In one 
sense they are all prepositional phrases ; but as the 
first qualifies a noun, while the second and third 
qualify a verb, it is better to distinguish the latter as 
adverbial phrases, 

3. The doctor prescribed his patient a receipt. 

The Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- 

native * doctor.' 
doctor Noun, Subject- nominative, 

prescribed Predicate-verb, 
his Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying the 

Secondary Objective ' patient.' 
patient Noun, Secondary Objective \^to or for his 

patient]. 
a Indefinite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- 

jective * receipt.' 
receipt. Noun, Primary Objective (immediately de- 

pendent upon the predicate- verb * pre- 
scribed '). 
He gave him a letter to read. 

Pronoun, Subject- nominative. 
Predicate-verb. 

Pronoun, Secondary Objective. 
Indefinite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- 
jective * letter.' 
Noun, Primary Objective. 



He 

gave 
him 



letter 



EXAMPLES. 283 

to read. Gerund, qualifying the predicate- verb * gave.' 

Here to is a true preposition signifpng ' in 
order to : ' i. e. ^ for reading/ or in older 
English, ^ for to read.' 

5. I saw a man with a sword. 

I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

saw Predicate -verb. 

a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective 

* man.' 

man Noun, Objective. 

with a sword. Prepositional phrase, qualiiying the Objective 

* man.' 

6. He killed a man with a sword. 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

killed Predicate-Yexh. 

a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective 

' man.' 

man Noun, Objective. 

with a sword. Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- 
verb * killed,' and denoting the instrument 
whereby. 

Obs. — In Example 5, ' with a sword ' is a prepositional phrase, 
qualifying the noun ' man ;' but in Example 6. * with 
a sword ' is an adverbial phrase, qualiiying the verb 
* kiUed.' 

7. Having abandoned their fortifications, the troops of 

the Emperor began a disastrous retreat. 

Having aban- Participle, qualiiying the predicate-verb 

doned * began.' 

their Pronoun possessive, or in the possessive case, 

qualiiying the Objective ^ fortifications.' 
fortificatioiiB Noun, objective dependent upon the parti- 
ciple ' having abandoned.' 
the Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- 

native ^ troops.' 
troops Noun, Subject-nominative, 

of the Em- Prepositional phrase, G^^iYdjviigihQ Subject- 

peror nominative * troops.' 

began Predicate-verb. 

a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective 

^ retreat.' 



284 EXAMPLES. 

disastrous Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ^ retreat.' 

retreat Noun, Objective. 

Obs, 1.— Mr. Mason considers 'having abandoned their fortifi- 
cations' a participial phrase qualifying the subject- 
nominative 'troops,' or, as he terms it, an 'attributive 
adjunct of the subject.' I believe that Dr. JVIorell 
would agree with Mr. Mason. 
No doubt in point of concord, the participle 'having 
abandoned ' agrees with the noun * troops ;' but in 
point of signification, the participle qualifies the pre- 
dicate-verb 'began.' For the meaning is that the 
troops, when they had abandoned the fortifications, 
began a retreat. In other words, the troops aban- 
doned the fortifications, and then began a retreats 
The qualification affects the act, and not the troops 
themselves. Therefore I am disposed to think that 
the participle must be held to qualify the verb. 

Obs, 2. — ^We may take their as a possessive pronoun, or as the 
possessive (genitive) case of the personal. 

8. The enraged officer struck the unfortunate man dead 

on the spot with a single blow of his sword. 

The Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 

native * officer.' 

enraged Participle or Adjective, qualifying the Sub- 

ject-nominative * officer.' 

officer Noun, Subject-nominative. 

struck Predicate-verb. 

the Definite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- 

jective * man.' 

unfortunate Adjective, qualifying the Primary Objective 

' man.' 

man Noun, Primary Objective. 

dead Participle or Adjective, Complement-objec- 

tive. 

on the spot Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- 

verb * struck,' and denoting the place 
where. 

with a single Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- 
blow of his verb ' struck,' and denoting the means or 
sword instrument whereby, 

9. A man of weak health is incapable of the thorough 

enjoyment of life. 

A Indefinite article, qualifying the Subject- 

nominative * man.' 



EXAMPLES. 



285 



man Noun, Substantive-nominative. 

of weak health Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- 
nominative ^man.* 

is Predicate- verb. 

incapable Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

of the thorough Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the 
enjoyment of adjective * incapable.' Or perhaps this 
life might be taken as an Adverbial phrase, 

qualifying the Predicate-nominative ' in- 
capable.' — See Mason, English Grammar, 
§512. 

10. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 
Comes dancing from the East. 

Now Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb 

* comes.' 

the Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 

native * star.' 

bright Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative 

' star.' 

morning Noun, used adjectively, qualifying the Sub- 

ject-nominative * star.' 

star Noun, Subject- nominative. 

day's Noun in the possessive case, qualifying the 

noun in apposition * harbinger.' 

harbinger Noun in apposition, qualifying the Subject- 

nominative * star.' 

comes Predicate verb. 

dancing Participle, Predicate-nominative. 

from the East. Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- 
verb ^ comes,' and denoting the place 
whence. 



11. 



Him 
the 

Almighty 

Power 
hurled 



Him the Almighty Power 
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky 
With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
To bottomless perdition. 

Pronoun, Objective. 

Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 
native * Power.' 

Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative 
' Power.' 

Noun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 



286 EXAMPLES. 

headlong Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ^ him.' 

flaming Participle^ qualifying the Objective * him.' 

from the ether- Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- 
eal sky verb ^ hurled,' and denoting the place 

whence, 
with hideous Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- 
ruin and verb * hurled^' and denoting the attendant 
combustion circumstances, 
down Adverb^ qualifying the Predicate-verb * hurled,' 
and denoting the direction whither, [Or, 
down may be taken as a preposition enter- 
ing into composition with the verb ^ hurled : ' 
'hurled down '= Latin de-jecit. 
to bottomless Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- 
perdition, verb * hurled,' and denoting the place 
whither^ or the condition to which. 

Cases of difficulty are constantly arising in analysis; and 
in some instances, grammarians of equal ability might enter- 
tain different opinions. Hence, we should guard against hasty 
conclusions ; we should proceed with caution, and learn to 
suspend judgment, when a case is not clear. It follows, also, 
that if a boy has done his best, and yet fails to imderstand the 
construction of a sentence, he ought not to be discouraged. 
On the contrary, if he has discovered a real difficulty, that is 
a sign of growing intelligence. 

Let us consider ^ few doubtful cases. 

12. The moon threw its silvery light upon the lake. 

The words ' upon the lake' might be taken as an adverbial 
phrase qualifying the predicate-verb * threw ; ' or, possibly, 
' the lake ' might be taken as a secondary objective dependent 
upon the compound verb * threw upon.' 

13. He recommended him to use great moderation in his 

diet. 

We might consider ^ to use ' as an infinitive employed sub- 
stantively, and as the Primaiy Objective dependent upon the 
Predicate- verb ' recommended.' In that case ' him ' must be 
the Secondary Objective, because the use was recommended 
' to him.' But it is just possible that ' him ' may be the 
subject-accusative before the infinitive * to use,' equivalent to 
' He recommended that he should use.' In any case, *■ mode- 
ration ' is an objective dependent upon the verb * to use.' 



EXAMPLES. 287 

14. He found all his wants supplied bj the care of his 
friends. 

Mr. Mason {^English Grammar^ § ^H) would make * wants' 
the Objective, and ' supplied' the Complement-Objective. But 
let us consider : he did not find his wants^ but the supply of 
his wants. He found, that his wants were supplied. The 
word * wants' seems to stand in the position of a subject-accu- 
sative : but then no infinitive is expressed. If we might read, 

* He found all his wants to he supplied,' there would be no 
further difficulty. Perhaps we may consider ' supplied ' as a 
participle used instead of the infinitive. This idiom is very 
common in Greek. 

Again, 

He seems to fly. 

According to the old grammar rule, this sentence presents 
no difficulty. One verb governs another in the infinitive 
mood, and there is an end of the matter. But if we regard an 
infinitive as a verbal substantive, we expect some government 
analogous to the government of a noun. After transitive verbs, 
the case is clear. In the sentence * He loves to ride,' the in- 
finitive ^ to ride ' stands in the place of an Objective governed 
by the verb ^ loves.' But how shall we explain the depen- 
dence of an infinitive ^ to fly ' upon an intransitive verb 

* seems ? ' 

The Greeks frequently use a participle in such construc- 
tions: as, (patrETai TrerofjiEroc^ ^ he seems (or appears) flying;' 
when the participle is a predicate-nominative. But then the 
Greeks also employ the infinitive construction, (balyerai ttete- 
(rdai ; and the Greek grammarians draw a distinction between 
the use of the infinitive and that of the participle. 

If we turn both the verbs into nouns, we find that the 
second appears in the genitive case. ' He seems to fly ' is 
equivalent to ^ He has the semblance of flight.' I offer the 
conjecture, that the dependence of an infinitive upon an in- 
transitive verb is analogous to the dependence of a noun, in 
the genitive case, upon another noun. 

The provincial idiom ' He seems a flying ' is easily ex- 
plained. * He seems on flying,' that is, * in the act of flight.' 



288 



EXAMPLES. 



II. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



I. CO-OEDINATE SENTENCES. 



1. Sentences standing side by side, without any connecting 
particle, 

15. The way was long, the wind was cold. 

The way was long : First Co-ordinate Sentence, 
The wind was cold : Second Co-ordinate Sentence, 
Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, 
The Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nominative 

* way.' 
way Noun, Subject-nominative, 

was Predicate-verb, 

long Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, 
The Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nominative 

' wind.' 
wind Noun, Subject-nominative, 
was Predicate- verb, 

cold Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

2. Copulative. 

16. The army advanced, and the enemy fled. 
The army advanced First Co-ordinate Sentence, 

and Conjunction Copulative, introducing the 

Second Co-ordinate Sentence, 
the enemy fled Second Co-ordinate Sentence, 

Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, 
the Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- 

tive * army.' 
army Noun, Subject-nominative, 

advanced, Predicate- verb. 

Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, 
the Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- 

tive ^ enemy.' 
enemy Noun, Subject-nominative, 

fled. Predicate-verb. 



EXAMPLES, 



289 



3. Alteimative. 
17. Either he comes, or you go. 
Either Conjunction alternative^ introducing the First 



he conies, 
or 

you go. 



he 
comes, 



you 



Co-ordinate Sentence. 
First Co-ordinate Sentence. 
Conjunction alternative^ introducing the Second 

Co-ordinate Sentence. 
Second Co-ordinate Sentence. 

Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, 

Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb. 

Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, 

Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb. 



4. Adversative. 
18. The virtuous man dies, but virtue is eternal. 

The virtuous First Co-ordinate Sentence. 

man dies, 
but 



virtue is 
eternal. 

The 

virtuous 

man 
dies, 



virtue 

is 

eternal. 



Conjunction adversative, introducing the Second 

Co-ordinate Sentence. 
Second Co-ordinate Sentence, 

Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, 

Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- 
tive * man.' 

Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative 
* man.' 

Noun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate- verb. 

Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate. 

Noun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 

Adjective^ Predicate-nominative. 



290 EXAMPLES. 



II. COMPOUND SENTENCES CONTAINING COERELATIVE 
CLAUSES. 

19. Where thou dwellest, I will dwell. 

Where thou Accessory Clause, 

dwellest 
I will dwell. Principal clause. 

Analysis of the Accessory Clause, 

Where Connective Particle (variously termed * Con- 

junctive Adverb,' * Adverbial Conjunc- 
tion, &c.') introducing the sentence, Hhou 
dwellest.' 

thou Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. 

dwellest. Predicate-verb. 

Analysis of the Principal Clause, 

I Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. 

will dwell. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

* will,' and the infinitive * dwell.' 

20. He spoke loud, that I might hear him. 

He spoke Principal Clause, 

loud 
that I might Accessory Clause, 

hear him. 

Analysis of the Principal Clause, 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

spoke Predicate- verb. 

loud Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb ' spoke.' 

Analysis of the Accessory Clause. 

that Connective Participle, introducing the sentence 

* I might hear him.'* 

I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

* In these constructions that is usually termed a conjunction ; but Mr. Mason pre- 
fers to call it a conjunctional adverb. See Mason, English Grammar, § 534, Note, 



EXAMPLES. 291 

might hear Predicate -verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

* might/ and the infinitive ' hear.' 
him. Pronoun, Objective. 

21. He spoke loud, in order that I might hear him. 

He spoke Principal Clause. 

loud 
in order that Accessory Clause, 

I might 

hear him. 

Analysis of the Principal Clause, 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

spoke Predicate- verb. 

loud Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb ^ spoke.' 

Analysis of the Accessory Clause. 

in order that Conjunctional phrase, introducing the sentence 

' I might hear him.' 
I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

might hear Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

* might/ and the infinitive * hear.' 
him. Pronoun^ Objective. 

22. He ran so fast, that he was quite weary. 

He ran so Principal Clause. 

fast 
that he was Accessory Clause. 

quite weary. 

Analysis of the Principal Clause. 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

ran Predicate- verb. 

so Adverb, qualifying the Adverb ^fast.' 

fast Adverb J qualifying the Predicate- verb ' ran.' 

Analysis of the Accessory Clause. 

that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

' he was quite weary.' 
he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

was Predicate-verb. 

o2 



292 



EXAMPLES. 



quite Adverb, qualifying the adjective ' weary.' 

weary Adjective^ Predicate-nominative. 

But compare the suggestion offered in § 68. 

23. If you write, they will come. 

If you write Accessory Clause, 
they will Principal Clause, 



come. 



if 



you 

write 



they 
will come. 



- Analysis of the Accessory Clause, 

Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

' you write.' 
Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb. 

Analysis of the PrincipaV Clause, 

Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 
* will ' and the infinitive * come.' 



III. COMPOUND SENTENCES CONTAINING SUBOEDINATE 

CLAUSES. 

1. The Noun-clause, 

24. The opinion of the judge was that the prisoner was 
guilty. 

The Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 

native ' opinion.' 

opinion Noun, Subject-nominative. 

of the judge Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- 
nominative ' opinion.' 

was Predicate-verb. 

that the pri- Noun-clause, Predicate-nominative, 
soner was 



guilty. 



that 
the 



Analysis of the Noun-clause, 

Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 
^ the prisoner was guilty.' 

Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 
native * prisoner.' 



EXAMPLES. 293 

prisoner Nouuy Subject-nominative. 

was Predicate-verb. 

guilty. Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

25. That he came is certain. 

That he came Noun-clause, Subject-nominative. 

is Predicate-verb. 

certain. Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

Analysis of the Noun-clause. 

that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

* he came.' 

he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

came. Predicate-verb. 

26. He informed me yesterday that he had arrived. 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

informed Predicate-verb. 

me Pronoun, Primary Objective, immediately de- 

pendent upon the Predicate-verb * informed.' 

yesterday Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * in- 

formed.' 

that he had Noun-clause, Secondary Objective, dependent 
arrived. upon the Predicate-verb * informed.' 

[The clause *that he had arrived' is equivalent to 'concerning his 
arrival/ or * of his arrival.'] 

Analysis of the Noun-clause. 

that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

* he had arrived.' 

he Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

had arrived. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

* had,' and the participle * arrived.' 

27. I told him tiat this would happen, 

I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

told Predicate-verb. 

him Pi'onoun, Secondary Objective, dependent upon 

the Predicate- verb * told.' 

that this Noun-clause, Primary Objective, immediately 

would dependent upon the Predicate-verb * told.' 

happen. 



294 EXAMPLES. 

Analysis of the Noun-clause, 

that Connective Particle^ introducing the sentence 

* this would happen.' 
this Pronoun^ Subject-nominative, 

would Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

happen. * would,' and the infinitive * happen.' 

28. I convinced him that he was mistaken. 

I Pronoun J Subject-nominative, 

convinced Predicate-verb, 

him Pronoun^ Primary Objective, 

that he was Noun-clause, Secondary Objective, depend- 
mistaken. ent upon the Predicate-verb * convinced.' 

[The clause ' that he was mistaken * is equivalent to the phrase ' of 
his mistake.'] 

Analysis of the Noun-clause, 

that Connective-Particle, introducing the sentence 

' he was mistaken.' 
he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

was Predicate-verb, 

mistaken. Participle, Predicate-nominative. 

Noun-clauses involving an Indirect Question, 

29. I know who did this. 

I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

know Predicate- verb. 

who did this. Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the 
Predicate- verb ^ know.' 
• 
Analysis of the Noun-clause, 

who Pronoun, introducing sentence * who did 

this;' and serving as Subject-nominative 
of the sentence. 

did Predicate-verb. 

this. Pronoun, Objective. 

30. He would not say where he lived. 

He Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

would . . . say Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 
* would,' and the infinitive ' say.' 



EXAMPLES. 295 

not Negative Adverb, qualifying the Predicate- 

verb ^ would . . . say.' 
where he Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the 

lived. Predicate-verb ' would . . . say.' 

Analysis of the Noun^clause. 

where Connective Particle, introducing the sen- 

tence ' where he lived,' and qualifying the 
Predicate-verb * lived.* 

he Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

lived. Predicate-verb. 

31. I wish to know, who you are. 

I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

wish Predicate-verb. 

to know Infinitive used substantively. Objective, de- 

pendent upon the Predicate-verb * wish.' 

who you are. Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the 
verb * to know.' 

Analysis of the Noun- clause, 

who Pronoun, introducing the sentence ' who you 

are,' and serving as Predicate-nominative 
in the sentence. 

you Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

are. Predicate-verb. 

2. The Adjective-Clause, 

32. The cohort, which had already crossed the river, 

quickly came to blows with the enemy. 

The D^^mYe -4r^/cZ6, qualifying the subject-nomina- 

tive * cohort.' 
cohort, Noun, Subject-nominative, 

which had al- Adjective Clause, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 
ready crossed native ^ cohort.' 
the river, 

quickly Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb [ came.' 

came Predicate- verb, 

to blows Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Pi-edicate-verb 

' came.' 
with the Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb 
enemy. 'came.' 



296 



EXAMPLES. 



Analysis of the Adjective -clause. 

which Pronoun J introducing the Adjective-clause, and 

serving as Subject-nominative, 

had . . . crossed Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 
' had,' and the participle * crossed.' 

already Adverb^ qualifying the Predicate-verb ' had . . . 

crossed.' 

the Definite Article^ qualifying the Objective ' river.* 

river. Noun, Objective. 

33. I saw the house in which he was born. 



Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 

Definite Article, qualifying the Objective 'house.' 

Noun, Objective. 

Adjective-clause, qualifying the Objective ' house.' 



I 
saw 

the 
house 

in which he 
was born. 

Analysis of the Adjective-clause. 
in which Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb 

' was born.' 
he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

was bom. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 
' was,' and the participle ^ born.' 
34. I know the man to whom he gave the money. 
I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

know Predicate-verb. 

the Defijiite Article, qualifying the Objective ^ man.' 

to whom he Adjective-clause, qualifying the Objective * man.' 
gave the 



Analysis of the Adjective-clause, 

Prepositional phrase, compounded of a preposi- 
tion and a pronoun, and used as a Secondary 
Objective. 

Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 

Definite Article,qnsdifying the Objective * money.' 

Noun, Objective (primary). 

35. He bought a horse with the money which he had 
saved. 
He Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 

bought Predicate-verb. 



to whom 



he 
gave 
the 
money. 



EXAMPLES. 



297 



a Indefinite Article^ qualifying the Objective 

* horse.' 
horse N^oun, Objective. 

vdththe money Adverbial phrase f qualifying the Predicate-verb 

< bought.' 
which he had Adjective-clause, qualifying the noun * money ' 
saved, in the Adverbial phrase ^ with the money.' 



Analysts of the Adjective-clause. 



which 



Pronoun, introducing the Adjective-clause, and 

used as Objective. 
Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

^ had,' and the participle * saved.' 

For Contracted and Elliptical Sentences, see Chapter IV. 



he 

had saved, 



Long sentences frequently present combinations of the 
constructions which we have discussed. The student will 
examine these in his reading. In this place we shall take two 
examples, given by Dr. Morell, Grammar^ pp. 91 and 99. 



Example L 

A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a classical 
education will probably undervalue it, when he sees that so 
large a portion of time is devoted to the study of a few ancient 
authors, whose works seem to have no direct bearing on the 
studies and duties of our own generation. 

First of all we observe that this Compound Sentence ex- 
hibits Correlative clauses : 

A reader unacquainted with the real Principal Clause, 
nature of a classical education will 
probably undervalue it : 
when he sees that so large a portion Accessory Clause. 
of time is devoted to the study of 
a few ancient authors, whose works 
seem to have no direct bearing on 
the studies and duties of o^ir own 
generation. 

o3 



298 



EXAMPLES. 



Analysis of the Principal Clause, 

A Indefinite article^ qualifying the Subject-nomi- 

native * reader.' 
reader Noun, Subject-nominative, 

unacquainted Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative 

* reader.' 
with the real Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Adjective 

nature ' unacquainted.' 

of a classical Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Noun 

education * nature.' 

will . . . un- Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 

dervalue * will,' and the infinitive ' undervalue.' 

probably Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * will 

undervalue.' 
it Pronoun, Objective. 



when 

he 

sees 

that so large 
a portion 
of time is 
devoted to 
the study 
of a few 
authors. 

whose works 
seem to 
have no 
direct 
bearing on 
the studies 
and duties 
of our own 
generation. 



that 
so 



Analysis of the Accessory Clause, 

Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

^ he sees,' &c. 
Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 
Predicate-verb. 
Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the 

Predicate-verb * « 



Adjective-clause, qualifying the Noun * authors.' 



Analysis of the Noun-clause, 

Connective Particle, introducing the sentence 

' so large a portion,' &c. 
Adverb, qualifying the Adjective ' large.' 



EXAMPLES. 



299 



large Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative 

* portion.' 

a Indefinite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- 

native ^ portion.' 

portion Noun, Subject-nominative. 

of time Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- 

nominative *' portion.' 

is devoted Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary 
^ is,' and the Participle * devoted.' 

to the study Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb 

* is devoted.' 

of a few Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Noun 

authors ' study.' 

Analysis of the Adjective-clause, 

whose Pronoun, introducing the Adjective-clause, and 

qualifying the Subject-nominative * works.' 
works Noun, Subject-nominative, 

seem Predicate-verb, 

to have Infinitive, dependent upon the Predicate-verb 

* seem.' 

no Adjective, qualifying the Objective * bearing.' 

direct Adjective, qualifying the Objective ^ bearing.' 

bearing Verbal-noun (or rather, Infinitive used sub- 

stantively), Objective, dependent upon the 
Infinitive ^ to have.' 
on the studies Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the Verbal 
and duties Noun ' bearing ; ' (or, Adverbial phrase, de- 
pendent upon the Infinitive ^bearing.') Obs, 
The nouns ^ studies' and ' duties ' are coupled 
by the Conjunction * and.' 
of our own Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Nouns 
generation. ^ studies ' and * duties.' 



Example II, 

Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner, and inculcates his 
doctrines with much zeal, piety, and earnestness ; but 
his style is verbose, he is disagreeably full of quota- 
tions from the Fathers, and he wants imagination. 
. The whole sentence is divided into two sections, separated 
by the adversative but. On the one side, we have a con- 



300 



EXAMPLES. 



tracted sentence; on the other side, we have three, co- 
ordinates. 
Bourdaloue is Contracted Sentence* 

indeed a great 

reasoner, and 

inculcates his 

doctrines with 

much zeal, ... - 

piety, and 

earnestness : 

(1) his style is Three Co-ordinates* 
verbose, 

(2) he is dis- 
agreeably full . 
of quotations 
from the 
Fathers, 

(3) he wants 
imagination. 

The third Co-ordinate is joined to the other two, by the 
Conjunction and. 

Analysis of the Contracted Sentence, 

By supplying he in the second clause, we obtain two co- 
ordinate sentences, connected by the Copulative and : 

1. Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner. 

2. [He] inculcates his doctrines with much zeal, piety, 

and earnestness. 



1. 



Bourdaloue 
is 

indeed 
a 

great 

reasoner. 
[He] 
inculcates 
his 

doctrines 

with much 
zeal, piety, 
and earnest- 
ness: 



Noun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 

Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * is.' 

Indefinite Article, qualifying the Predicate- 
nominative * reasoner.' 

Adjective, qualifying the Predicate-nomina- 
tive ' reasoner.' 

Noun, Predicate-nominative. 

Pronoun, Subject-nominative. 

Predicate-verb. 

Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying 
the Objective * doctrines.' 

Noun, Objective. 

Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- 
verb ^ inculcates,' and denoting the man* 
ner how. 



EXAMPLES. 



301 



Analysis of the Three Co-ordinates. 

1. hia Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying 

the Subject- nominative * style.' 
style Noun, Subject-nominative, 

is Predicate-verb, 

verbose, Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 

2. he Pronoun, Subject- nominative, 
is Predicate- verb. 

disagreeably Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-nominative 

' full.' 

full Adjective, Predicate-nominativeo 

of quotations Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the 

from the Adjective * fiill.' 

Fathers, 

3. he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, 
wants Predicate-verb, 
imagination. Noun^ Objective. 



302 



EXEBCISES. 



EXEECISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Subject-Nominative and Predicate- Verb. 
1. 2. 



1. 


Time flies. 


1. 


Spring returns. 


2. 


Christmas comes. 


2. 


Earth smiles. 


3. 


Winds blow. 


3. 


Birds sing. 


4. 


Snow falls. 


4. 


Grass grows. 


5. 


Ice appears. 


5. 


Flowers bloom. 


6. 


Boys Side. 


6. 


Corn springs. 


7. 


Men skate. 


7. 


Fishes swim. 


8. 


Children sing. 


8. 


Horses neigh. 


9. 


Bells ring. , 


9. 


Boys run. 


10. 


Fire burns. 


10. 


Girls play. 


11. 


Light shines. 


11. 


Men work. 


12. 


Joy prevails. 


12. 


Women sew. 



Suhject-Nominative, Predicate- Verb, and Predicate- 
Nominative. 



1 . Life is short. 

2. Art is long. 

3. Genius is rare. 

4. Vast is art. 

5. Narrow is wit. 

6. Music is charming. 

7. Eloquence is delightful. 

8. Extremes are dangerous. 

9. Great is truth. 

10. Men are fallible. 

11. Knowledge is power. 

12. Business is business. 



1. Virtue is bold. 

2. Unbelief is blind. 

3. Light is sweet. 

4. Trial comes unsought. 

5. Harry seems wise. 

6. Mary grows tall. 



7. Thoughts lie deep. 

8. Flowers look pretty. 

9. Eoses appear fair. 

10. Knowledge is good. 

11. Boys become idle. 

12. Tasks seem heavy. 



EXERCISES. 303 

Qualifications of the Subject-Nominative, 
N.B. The Articles a and the are considered qualifications. 

5. 

1. The climate is good. 

2. Fertile is the island. 

3. The proper study of mankind is man. 

4. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

5. The road was bad. 

6. The storm was boisterous. 

7. True hope is swift. 

8. His life was gentle. 

9. Musical is Apollo's lute. 

6, 

1. Sweet is the breath of morn. 

2. Pleasant is the sun. 

3. The better part of valour is discretion, 

4. Charming is divine philosophy. 

5. Hard are the ways of truth. 

6. The air, a chartered libertine, is free. 

7. The virtue of prosperity is temperance. 

8. The virtue of adversity is fortitude. 

Qualifications of the Predicate-Nominative, 

7. 

1. Order is Heaven's first law. 

2. Expression is the dress of thought. 

3. Music is the food of love. 

4. Full of shapes is fancy. 

5. Beauty is a flower. 

6. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

7. LowKness is young ambition's ladder. 

8. Sufferance is the badge of all our tribe. 

9. Mercy is an attribute to God himself. 
10, Brutus is an honourable man. 

8. 

1. Brevity is the soul of wit. 

2. God is the spring of good. 

3. Love is the star to every wandering bark. 



304 EXERCISES. 

4. Service is no heritage. 

5. Fortune is no goddess. 

6. Pride is the vice of fools, 

7. Prosperity is the blessing of the Old Testament. 

8. He was in logic a great critic. 

9. Fraud is the ready minister of injustice. 

10. She was a maid of grace. 

11. They are the faction. 

Miscellaneous, 
9. 

1. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

2. True wit is nature to advantage dressed. 

3. All nature is but art. 

4. The art itself is nature. 

5. Virtue alone is happiness below. 

6. All the world is a stage. 

7. The fairest flowers of the season are our carnations. 

8. The happy only are the truly great. 

9. Good sense is the gift of Heaven. 

10. The child is father of the man. 

11. A double blessing is a double grace. 

Qualifications of the Predicate- Verb, 
10. 

1. A merry heart goes all the day. 

2. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 

3. There eternal summer dwells. 

4. The Muses in a ring 
Aye round about Jove's altar sing. 

5. Hard by a cottage chimney smokes. 

6. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

7. So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed. 

8. In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes. 

9. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
10. The river glideth at his own sweet will. 

11. 

1. The third day comes a frost. 

2. My high-blown pride 
At length broke under me. 

8. Joy delights in joy. 



EXERCISES. 305 

4. This wine tastes sour. 

5. The speech reads well. 

6. The rose smells sweet. 

7. The violet smells sweetly. 

8. A light heart lives long. 

9. The merchant from the exchange returns in peace. 
10. True ease in writing comes from art. 

Miscellaneous* 

12. 

1. Grace was in all her steps, 

2. The time is out of joint. 

8, Slow rises worth by poverty depressed. 

4. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

5. Men, at some time, are masters of their fates. 

6. Such harmony is in immortal souls. 

7. His former name 

Is heard no more in Heaven. ^^ 

8. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 

9. An old man is twice a child. 
10. All colours agree in the dark. 

The Ohjectivey with or without Qualifications. 

13. 

1. Eloquence charms the soxd. 

2. Song charms the sense. 

3. Crafty men contemn studies. 

4. Gentle dulness ever loves a joke. 

5. Children bring cares. 

6. Love rules the court. 

7. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 

8. Some natural tears they dropped. 

9. Not always actions show the man. 

10. The childhood shows the man. 

11. The apparel oft proclaims the man. 

14. 

1, There entertain him all the saints above. . 

2. Bacchus from out the purple grape 
Crushed the sweet poison of misused wine. 



306 EXERCISES. 

3. Now the herald lark 
Left his ground-nest. 

4. Children gather pebbles on the shore. 

5. The ruling passion conquers reason still. 

6. Virtue itself escapes not calumny. 

7. The widow in distress he graciously relieved. 

8. Time hath a wallet at his back. 

9. His eye begets occasion for his wit. 

10. Eoses have thorns. 

11. On her white breast a sparkling cross she wore. 

12. Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose. 

15. 

1. Charms strike the sight. 

2. Merit wins the soul. 

3. Here Britain's statesmen oft the fall foredoom 
Of foreign tyrants. 

4. They speak the glory of the British Queen. 

5. Wise Peter sees the world's respect for gold. 

6. Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time. 

7. Education forms the common mind, 

8. The power of music all our hearts allow. 

9. Every shepherd tells his tale, 
Under the hawi;horn, in the dale. 

10. Cassiiis from bondage will deliver Cassius. 

11. Honest plain words best pierce the ear of grief. 

The Complement- Ohje ctive, 
16. 

1. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

2. Perseverance keeps honour bright. 

3. They make themselves the measure of mankind. 

4. God calleth preaching folly. 

5. Histories make men wise. 

6. I will make assurance doubly sure. 

7. Your wit makes wise things foolish. 

The Complement'N'ominative, 

17. 

1. Some are born great. 

2. Lowly feigning is called compliment. 

3. Now is the winter of our discontent 
Made glorious summer by this sun of York. 



EXERCISES. 307 

4. The prisoner was declared innocent. 

5. Henry, his son, is chosen king. 

6. Louis of France was elected chief of the expedition. 

7. He was appointed ruler over the people. 

The Secondary Objective. 

- 18. 

1. A subtle happiness thou to thyself proposest. 

2. Nature to all things fixed the limits fit. 

3. Some to conceit alone their taste confine. 

4. His silver hairs 
Will purchase us a good opinion. 

5. The valiant never taste of death but once. 

6. This isle 
He quarters to his blue-haired deities. 

7. A sable cloud - - - 
Turns forth her silver lining on the night. 

8. Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. 

9. A golden mind stoops not to shows of dross. 

10. All my engagements I will construe to thee. 

11. To whom our fathers would not obey. 

The Subject-Accusative, 

19. 

1. I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus. 

2. All men think all men mortal, but themselves. 

3. At thirty, man suspects himself a fool. 

4. He thought content the good to be enjoyed. 

5. We think our fathers fools. 

6. He soon perceived me to be unfit for his service. 

7. We found her in her answers to have an eloquent 

tongue. 

The Infinitive used Substantively, 

20. 

1. All our knowledge is ourselves to know. 

2. Not to know some trifles is a praise. 

3. Every man desireth to live long. 

4. To spend too much time in studies is sloth. 

5. To be dull is construed to be good, 

6. To gild refined gold is wasteful excess. 

7. It is cruelty to beat a cripple with his own crutches. 



308 EXERCISES* 

8. To seek philosophy in Scripture is to seek the dead 

among the living. 

9. To seek religion in Nature is to seek the living among 

the dead. 

21. 

1. Not to know me argues yourselves unknown. 

2. To teach a teacher ill beseemeth me. 

3. 'Tis phrase absurd to call a villain great. 

4. Our humbler province is to tend the fair. 

5. That same prayer doth teach us all to render the deeds 

of mercy. 

6. 'Tis not in mortals to command success. 

7. It is not for your health thus to commit 
Your weak condition to the raw cold morning. 

8. To err is human. 

9. To forgive is divine. 

Forms in -ing. 
A. Infinitives or Gerunds^ and 
Verbal Substantives. 

22. 

1. All friendship is feigning. 

2. All loving is mere folly. 

3. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

4. The felling out of faithfol friends 

Renewing is of love. 

5. Well doing is wealth. 

6. Of making many books there is no end. 

7. I blame you not for praising Caesar so. 

8. Kiiowing him is enough. 

9. You have condemned Lucius for taking bribes of the 

Sardians. 

10. Reading maketh a fiill man. 

11. Writing maketh an exact man. 

12. Teaching is the best way of learning. 

13. Wiving goes by destiny. 

B. Participles in "ing. 

23. 

1. The rolling stone gathers no moss. 

2. The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 
Doth glance from heaven to earth. 



EXERCISES. 309 

3. Life is but a walking shadow. 

4. Poetry is a speaking picture. 

5. Envy is that dark shadow ever waiting upon a shining 

merit. 

6. Wandering o'er the earth, 
By falsities and lies the greatest part 
Of mankind they corrupted. 

Gerund with *to.' 

24. 

1 . Under leave of Brutus 

Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 

2. Hither the heroes resort 

To taste awhile the pleasures of a court, 

3. I have spoke thus much 

To mitigate the justice of thy plea. 

4. A pious man was duly brought 
To shrieve the dying. 

5. Here comes in embassy 

The French king's daughter with yourself to speak. 

6. That is enough to satisfy the senate. 

7. I come not to steal away your hearts. 

8. I must be cruel, only to be kind. 

Miscellaneous. 
25. 

1. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. 

2. The quality of mercy is not strained, 

3. Thou art a monument without a tomb. 

4. There is a tide in the affairs of men. 

5. I will talk a word with this same learned Theban. 

6. Solitude is sometimes the best society. 

7. Want of decency is want of sense. 

8. Thy wish was father to that thought. 

26. 

1. This was the noblest Eoman of them all. 

2. Idleness is not real pleasure. 

3. Agreeable occupation is real pleasure. 

4. Men are but children of a larger growth. 

5. Fair ladies masked are roses in their bud. 

6. Tyrants seldom want pretexts. 

7. The world is stiU deceived with ornament. 

8. His sceptre shows the force of temporal power. 



310 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

I. CO-OEDINATE SENTENCES. 

1. Co-ordinate Sentences^ standing side hy side, without any 
Connecting Particle. 

27. 

1. E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. 

2. Small herbs have grace, 
111 weeds do thrive apace. 

3. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear, 
Eobes hide all. 

4. The cause is in my will ; I will not come. 

5. To be contents his natural desire. 
He asks no angel's wing. 

6. Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul; 
Eeason's comparing balance rules the whole. 

7. Great Nature spoke; observant man obeyed; 
Cities were formed ; societies were made. 

8. Antiquity is the young state of the world ; the pre- 

sent time is the real antiquity. 

9. No work is a disgrace ; the true disgrace is idleness. 

2. Copulative. 

28. 

1. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
And at every gust the dead leaves fall. 

2. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. 
And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. 

3. Jason the Thessalian proposed the plan, Agesilaus the 

Spartan, attempted its execution, and Alexander the 
Macedonian finally achieved the conquest. 

4. The people are like the sea ; and orators are like the 

wind. 

5. Of all virtues, goodness is the greatest; and without it 

man is a busy, mischievous, wretched thing. 
. 6. A friend loveth at all times ; and a brother is bom for 
adversity. 



EXERCISES. 311 

7. A fooFs moutli is his destruction ; and his lips are the 

snare of his soul. 

8. His face 
Deep scars of thunder had intrenched ; and care 
Sat on his faded cheek. 

3. Alternative. 

29. 

1. Either there is a civil strife in heaven, 

Or else the world, too saucy with the gods, 
Incenses them to send destruction. 

2. Either he is innocent, or he is the most crafty rogue in 

the country. 

3. Either your brethren have miserably deceived us, or power 

confers virtue. 

4. He will either come himself, or he will send a repre- 

sentative. 

5. The king must win, or he must forfeit his crown for 

ever. 

6. He arrived in time, or I should have been lost. 

7. Caesar was an able commander, or Gaul would not have 

been conquered. 

Adversative, 
30. 

1. Every subject's duty is the king's; but every subject's soul 

is his own. 

2. It is an honour for a man to cease from strife ; but every 

fool will be meddling. 

3. The demonstrations of logic are common to all mankind ; 

but the persuasion of rhetoric must be varied according 
to the audience. 

4. A fool speaks all his mind ; but a wise man reserves some- 

thing for hereafter. 

5. Counsel in the heart of a man is like deep water ; but a 

wise man will draw it out. 

6. Knowledge pufFeth up ; but charity buildeth up. 

7. The wise man's eyes are in his head ; but the fool walketh 

in darkness. 

8. A superficial tincture of philosophy may incline the mind 

to atheism ; yet a farther knowledge brings it back to 
religion. 



312 EXERCISES. 

9. Learning makes the mind gentle; whereas ignorance 
renders it churlish. 
10. We are commanded to forgive our enemies ; but we are 
nowhere commanded to forgive our friends. 



II. COMPOUND SENTENCES EXHIBITINa COKRELATIVE 
CLAUSES. 

31. 

1. But when he once attains the upmost round, 
He then unto the ladder turns his back. 

2. Licence they mean when they cry liberty. 

3. To the noble mind 
Eich gifts wax poor, when givers prove unkind. 

4. He had a fever, when he was in Spain. 

5. Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar, 
I have not slept. 

6. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 

7. When I spoke that, I was ill-tempered too. 

8. From lowest place, when virtuous things proceed. 
The place is dignified by the doer's deed. 

32. 

1. Fools rush in, where angels fear to tread. 

2. He lay still, where he fell. 

3. The tongues of mocking damsels are as keen 
As is the razor's edge. 

4. Because I love you, I will let you know. 

5. Since you can cog, I will play no more with you. 

6. If we lose this battle, then is this 

The very last time we shall speak together. 

7. If this were true, then should I know this secret. 

8. If I live, I will be good to thee. 

9. Thou canst not die by traitors 
Unless thou bringest them with thee. 

33. 

1. I must not give you the book, for it is not mine. 

2. As the tree falls, so it will lie. 

3. He cannot thrive 

Unless her prayers reprieve him from the wrath 
Of greatest justice. 



EXERCISES. 313 

4. If he were hon ester 
He were much goodlier. 

5. If I be not deceived, you are an Athenian. 

6. He were no lion, were not Eomans hinds. 

7. The mountain is so high, that there is always snow on 

the top of it. 

8. If it were so, it was a grievous fault. 

9. For the strait gate would be made straiter yet, 
Were none admitted there but men of wit. 

34. 

1. As the sun breaks through the darkest clouds. 
So honour peereth in the meanest habit. 

2. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 

3. Thy tooth is not so keen, 
Because thou art not seen. 

4. Murder, though it hath no tongue, will speak 
With most miraculous organ. 

5. The people perished so fast, that it was impossible for 

the survivors to perform the rites of sepulture. 

6. Although we seldom followed advice, we were all ready 

enough to ask it. 

7. Wherever they marched, their route was marked with 

blood. 

35. 

1. Unless a critic is well acquainted with the sciences, his 

diligence will be attended with danger. 

2. Clothes cannot be made to fit, unless measure of the 

body be first taken. 

3. The nature of the mind would be unruffled, if the 

afiections did not disturb it. 

4. J£ too great a burden be laid upon a middling genius, 

it blunts the cheerful spirit of hope. 

5. If the tasks are too light, a great loss is sustained in 

the amount of progress. 

6. If Csesar had been conquered, he would have become 

more odious than Catiline. 

7. If we begin with certainties, we shall end in doubts. 

8. If we begin with doubts, we shall end in certainties. 

9. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 



314 EXERCISES. 



III. COMPOUND SENTENCES, COMPEISINa 
SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES. 

1. The Noun-clause. 

36. 

1. That you have wronged me, appears in this. 

2. The congregated college have concluded 
That labouring art can never ransom nature. 

3. No man can wade deep in learning, without discovering 

that he knows nothing thoroughly. 

4. The opinion of all men was, that the undertaking was 

doubtful. 

5. Yet some maintain that to this day she is a living 

child. 

6. Consider this. 

That, in the course of justice, none of us 
Should see salvation. 

7. He showed how fields were won. 

8. The heart distrusting asks, if this be joy. 

37. 

1. That a historian should not record trifles is perfectly 

true. 

2. That we cannot is pretended ; that we w^ill not is the 

true reason. 

3. It occasionally happened that his wit obtained the 

mastery over his other faculties. 

4. He asked that he might be restored to his former state. 

5. He wished to know, where I was. 

6. They asked, whether he would come. 

7. The good woman saw at once, that her son was a poet. 

2. The Adjective-clause. 

38. 

1. 111 blows the wind that profits nobody. 

2. He jests at scars that never felt a wound. 

3. They also serve, who only v/ait. 

4. Fame is no plant that grows on mortal soil. 

5. He tallcs to me, that never had a son. 



EXERCISES, 315 

6. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

7. All that glitters is not gold. 

8. He is well paid that is well satisfied. 

89. 

1 . Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 

2. The play is the thing, 
Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. 

3. Yon gray lines, 
That fret the clouds, are messengers of day. 

4. The evil that men do lives after them. 

5. I, that denied the gold, will give my heart. 

6. Thou art the ruins of the noblest man 
That ever lived in the tide of times. 

7. He that is down need fear no fall. 

8. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey. 
Where wealth accumulates. 



CONTEACTED SENTENCES. 

40. 

1. Cgesar and Pompey fought for victory. 

2. William and Mary are a happy couple. 

3. The Gauls crossed the Alps, and invaded Italy. 

4. Csesar crossed the Eubicon, and marched to Rome. 

5. He must sail, or sell. 

6. I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him. 

7. Neither John nor his brother was present. 

8. He is a good writer, but a bad speaker. 

9. Good nature and good sense must ever join ; 
To err is human, to forgive divine. 

41. 

1. For we will shake him, or worse days endure. 

2. Some guide the course of wandering orbs on high, 
Or roll the planets through the boundless sky. 

3. Men may be read, as well as books, too much. 

4. Nor stony tower, nor walls of beaten brass, 
Nor airless dungeon, nor strong links of iron. 
Can be retentive to the strength of spirit. 

5. Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a cage. 



316 EXERCISES. 

6. Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade ; 
A breath can make them, as a breath has made. 

7. He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, 
Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. 



ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 

42. 

1. He is as tall as I. 

2. They love him, more than I. 
8. They love him, more than me. 

4. This is the man I saw. 

5. There's not a joy the world can give, 
Like that it takes away. 

6. Who reasons msely is not therefore wise. 

7. Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

8. To me more dear, congenial to my heart, 
One native charm, than all the gloss of art. 

43. 

1. That is the book I gave you. 

2. This is the house we live in. 
8. This is the way they came. 

4. He left the day I arrived. 

5. He arrived the day that I left. 

6. Thomas is the same as ever. 

7. Henry did as he was bidden. 



LONDON: PRINTED BY 

SPOTTrSWOODK AND CO., NliW-STBEET SQUATJE 

AND PAWfJAMlCNT STUEliX 



